In 1826 and 1832. The Russian Academy of Sciences announced a contest to write an essay covering the history of the Mongol conquest of Eastern Europe. "The rule of the Mongol dynasty, known here as the Golden Horde ... it should have more or less influence on the fate, structure, regulations, education, customs and language of our fatherland... It's time to finally make a diligent experiment ...to explain the dark and confusing parts of the national history and geography of this period ..."[Tizenhausen, 1884, p. 554].

A few decades later, the first work appeared - the work of V. G. Tiesenhausen, who collected information left by the Arabs and Persians - contemporaries of the Mongol Empire and the Golden Horde, and others. A huge array of domestic and foreign sources, which have since been introduced into scientific circulation, has allowed historians (Orientalists and Russian scholars) to give a comprehensive assessment of the political and cultural role of the Golden Horde in the history of Eurasia.

Keywords: Mongol Empire, Russia, Golden Horde, Grand Duchy of Moscow.

In the Russian historiographical tradition, opposing positions were gradually formed, which still exist today. The first one is connected with the complete denial of any positive aspects in the relations between Russia and the Golden Horde. In accordance with this approach, the Mongol conquerors were viewed as an absolutely negative force, and historians did not spare colors to emphasize the "primitiveness" and "cruelty" of this steppe element, especially in comparison with the Russian land conquered by the Mongols. Therefore, the Golden Horde was unambiguously interpreted as the enemy and enslaver of Russia, there were one-dimensional relations of domination-submission, suppression-struggle between them.

The second position is represented by the works of Eurasian emigrants (G. V. Vernadsky, N. S. Trubetskoy, etc.), who formulated the opposite interpretation of Horde-Russian relations. They focused on the Horde's close political and cultural contacts with Russia, which were particularly strong in the era of the Grand Duchy of Moscow. Numerous Eastern borrowings in medieval Russian statehood and culture allowed us to raise the question of a more complex Golden Horde policy towards Russia than the primitive knocking out of tribute and pitting princes against each other. In the works of the founders of Eurasianism and their followers, Russia was presented as the geopolitical heir of the Mongol Empire, in particular the Golden Horde. It is impossible not to admit that there is a rational grain in this interpretation. Acquaintance with medieval sources shows that it is incorrect to perceive the Jochid state only as a force that is definitely hostile to Russia. The Russian principalities were built into the Mongol system of power as one of the full-fledged and necessary elements, and two and a half centuries of "yoke"were imposed on them.

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not only were they a time of suffering and deprivation for the Russian people, but they were also a period of inter-civilizational contacts, which were carried out in a variety of forms.

In the Soviet era, first-class fundamental research appeared, which in many respects has not lost its significance today (A. N. Nasonov, B. D. Grekov and A. Y. Yakubovsky, M. G. Safargaliyev, M. A. Usmanov, V. L. Egorov, G. A. Fedorov-Davydov). A lot of new information about the history of the Golden Horde was discovered as a result of extensive archaeological excavations of medieval cities, especially both Sarai.

The radical changes of the 1990s in Russia also affected historical science. To a certain extent, this also applies to the study of the Golden Horde. The publication of the works of Eurasians, the widespread promotion of the works of L. N. Gumilev (whose views on Russian-Horde relations were close to those of Eurasia), the growing interest of our intelligentsia in the historical roots of Russian civilization, the development of historical science in Russian regions, especially in Tatarstan - all this made the Golden Horde theme quite popular.

The Golden Horde is a common designation for the north-western ulus (appanage) of the Mongol Empire, as well as the state that later emerged on the basis of this ulus. Officially, it was called the "Ulus of Jochi", i.e. the lot of Jochi, the eldest son of Genghis Khan.

During the reign of Uzbek and his son Janibek , the Golden Horde's statehood and culture flourished. In the steppe there were centers of agriculture, developed cattle breeding, cities-centers of trade and handicraft production. In many respects, the everyday culture of the inhabitants of steppe cities surpassed that of Western Europe, not only in the luxury of life of the ruling strata, but also in the elementary conditions of existence of ordinary people. The city was equipped with wide streets, water supply (in ceramic pipes), sewerage, public toilets, baths. The latter served as modern clubs. According to G. A. Fedorov-Davydov, who spent many years studying the Golden Horde, it was a world of "bright urban eastern medieval culture", a culture of "watering bowls and mosaic panels on mosques, Arab astrologers, Persian poems and Muslim spiritual scholarship, Koran interpreters and algebraists, exquisite fine ornaments and calligraphy" [Fedorov-Davydov, 1976, p. 118].

E. S. Kulpin writes about the Golden Horde as a civilized state, within which the unity of the Turkic and East Slavic ethnic groups was formed: "Although interethnic contacts became constant during the dominance of the Khazar Khaganate and Kievan Rus, the intensity of contacts increased when the main peoples of this region were united under a single political power in a state called the Golden Horde. The significance of this event and the formation of the Russian superethnos in the formation of the worldview, general ideas about the world and about themselves of the peoples of Russia is not denied, but it was given and is given much less importance compared to others: with the emergence of Kievan Rus, the adoption of Christianity, the unification of the North Russian lands by Moscow "[Kulpin, 2001, p. 74]. The Golden Horde was an ethnic cradle for many Turkic peoples, including the Tatars, and its population and culture are part of the history of these peoples and, consequently, part of the history of Russia as a whole.

The "Horde" period in the history of Russia (almost two and a half centuries) was especially significant for the formation of Russian civilization. Under the influence of the Golden Horde, Vladimir-Suzdal, later Moscow, Russia was transformed into a state oriented to the East. This became especially evident during the blockade of Russia from the West by German and Swedish crusaders, as well as by the Lithuanian-Russian state, which absorbed into its composition those Russian lands that since the time of Kievan Rus gravitated to the European region.

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Under the influence of the Golden Horde, the postal service, order, financial, tax and judicial-legal systems were formed. The formation of the territory of the principalities of North-Eastern Russia, as V. A. Kuchkin noted, "took place under the indirect and sometimes direct influence of the Horde" [Kuchkin, 1984, p. 105]. In the terminology of the Russian chancellery of the administrative and administrative system, traces of Mongolian, Uyghur, Chinese, and Persian terminology have been preserved: yarlyk, tamga, tovar, yasak, and beleg (identity card), "batman" (a measure of weight), etc. The word "book "is of Chinese origin and literally means"scroll". In China, Persia, and Russia, they wrote in the Eastern style, on scrolls (Nefedov, 2006, p. 118). The power of the Ilkhans (Hulaguids) was the most powerful state in the western part of the Mongol Empire. Therefore, a significant part of the borrowing went through Persia. The terms money, seal, papyrus, folder (for papers), kilichey (ambassador) are of Persian-Arabic origin. The main government institution in Russia, Persia and other states of the Mongol Empire was the treasury; it is known that the treasury kept tax receipts, which were called defteri (Nefedov, 2006, p. 4). 118 - 119].

The system of Mongol government in Russia was generally the same as in other parts of the empire. By order of Mongke Khan in the 50s of the XIII century, a census was conducted throughout the empire (in China-in 1252, in Iran-in 1253, in Russia-in 1257). In 1257, the khan appointed the son of his son-in-law Kitat as the supreme darukhachi (baskak) in Russia, and with him came numerators, dividing the population into "tens", "hundreds", "thousands" and "thousands" (tens of thousands) for tax purposes. The head of this fiscal and administrative system was the "great Baskak of Vladimir" (Yegorov, 1997: 53-54). Tax collection was initially left to the public, but then this practice was abolished. The Baskaks had their own staff of scribes: bitekachi, tribute collectors, customs officers (collectors of tamga) and yaryg judges. Each parish had its own office, a table where scribes sat and tax lists were compiled [Nefedov, 2006, p. 118]. Russian princes fully mastered this administrative system. And Dmitry Donskoy, having subdued the Bulgars in 1377, appointed his own governors (darugachi and customs officer) to the city - just as the Mongols appointed officials to Russian cities [Vernadsky, 1997, p.365, 369; Nefedov, 2006, p. 118].

The further evolution of this system was accompanied by synthesis processes. Horde exit (tribute)in the 14th century the grand dukes began to gather. Management was taken out of the Russian lands. This model of management, which was originally eastern [Kradin, 1992, p. 170; Pivovarov and Fursov, 1995, p. 33], did not create its own institutions, but used local ones, carrying out accounting and control. The functions of the "great Baskak of Vladimir" were combined with those of the Grand Duke, and the latter was given the fiscal system at his disposal. The institution of baskachestvo and the subsequent transfer of its main functions to princes (the so-called remote management model) influenced Russia (power technology, fiscal forms, centralization of management).

Under the influence of the Horde, changes took place in the political system of Russia, and trends in the development of the monarchical foundations of princely power strengthened. Establishing a system of their rule, the Horde did not want to weaken the princely power at all. On the contrary, they were interested in strengthening it and implemented appropriate policies. This policy was dictated by purely practical considerations, primarily fiscal ones. Princely feuds negatively affected the revenue flow to the Horde treasury. In Sarai, they were inclined to view the power of the Grand Duke as a guarantee of political stability and the regular arrival of the Horde "exit". To this end, the Russian princes were left on their desks and established as local rulers and agents of the Khan's administration. There is a definite tendency in the policy of the Horde khans to adapt the existing system of inter-princely relations in Russia for their own needs. That is why, as A. N. Nasonov noted, we "do not see from the Horde in the first decades of the rule of po-

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It is necessary to change the direction of the Vladimir Table's foreign and domestic policy. The interests of Batu and his immediate successors encouraged the Horde to meet the all-Russian claims of the Vladimir Prince " [Nasonov, 1940, p. 23].

This policy was expressed in the fact that the khans recognized the existence of the principle of "eldership" in Russia when appointing to the Grand duchy and supported the "legally" imprisoned prince by all means, up to sending troops or physically eliminating competitors. This policy, as V. O. Klyuchevsky aptly put it, "a rough Tatar knife" that "cut the knots that the descendants of Vsevolod III were able to entangle the affairs of their land" (Klyuchevsky, 1957, p.43), soon led to the fact that the "Tatar knife" gradually turned into a tool for resolving inter-princely contradictions. Khan's "thunderstorm" and "mercy", the strength of the Tatar troops became the arguments that asserted the power of the Vladimir prince over the other princes. The Vladimir prince himself fell into a strict official dependence on the khan.

In the dependence of Russian princes on the Khan's power, the features of citizenship - ministeriality - in its most rigid form begin to clearly appear [Kotyshev, 1994, pp. 62-72]. It is quite natural that these relations began to penetrate into the thickness of Russian society. The relations of vassalage between the princes and the Grand Duke of Vladimir, as well as between the princes and other representatives of the upper classes, are gradually being replaced by relations of ministeriality. Contractual relations between the grand and appanage dukes are no longer based on the principle of "eldership", but on unconditional domination and subordination. This process is clearly traced in the inter-princely relations of the XIV-XV centuries, recorded in the princely treaty documents. According to these documents, it is possible to trace all the stages of the formation of ministerial relations, starting with individual restrictions on the rights of appanage princes in the field of foreign policy under Simeon the Proud and ending with the first attempts to reduce appanage princes to the position of service under Dmitry Donskoy.

Horde politics stimulated the development of the rudiments of authoritarian methods of governance that existed in the political culture of pre-Mongol Russia, bringing to the Russian soil social relations that were characteristic of Eastern societies, and in particular of the Mongol Empire. The power of the grand Duke was established as the power of the sovereign, and his subjects were turned into serfs.

Since the end of the 15th century, this state of affairs has been gaining ground in the mass consciousness. In his writings, Joseph Volotsky puts an equal sign between the relations of the grand Duke to the boyar and the boyar to his serf; from the same time, the form of addressing the grand Duke - "to your lord the sovereign, the grand Duke of all Russia, your serf, sir, beats his forehead" - becomes mandatory for any of the service people, no matter what high rank he is neither was [The Message..., 1958, p. 153]. All were equalized in the face of state power: feudal lords and black people, secular and ecclesiastical people. All became subjects of the state, completely dependent on it. The relations of rigid subordination characteristic of the Mongol Empire were transferred to Russia. According to V. B. Kobrin and A. A. Yurganov, the Horde yoke was not the only reason that led to the establishment of despotic autocracy in Russia. Of course, the centralization of Russia was also caused by a whole range of socio-economic reasons. The need to confront the Horde accelerated and accelerated this process, which was accompanied by the constant use of violence and terror [Kobrin and Yurganov, 1991, p.60]. During the period of the Horde yoke, the city's democratic institutions were dealt a crushing blow. The Veche as a political institution disappears, the princely power (especially the power of grand dukes) increases, and the principle of single power wins.

The sixteenth century saw the growth of monarchical institutions across the European continent, but nowhere was this process more rapid than in the Muscovite state.

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The ambassador of the Holy Roman Empire S. Herberstein, who visited Moscow in 1517 and 1526, when describing the Moscow political order draws parallels with Turkey, then with Persia, noting that Grand Duke Vasily III surpasses all other (European) monarchs in terms of the degree of power over his subjects [Herberstein, 1908, p.20].

During the Horde period, the official formula "tsarev ulus and princely fatherland" appeared in Russia, combining the supreme power of the khan and the sovereign right of Russian princes. In the 15th century, the khans of the Crimea and Astrakhan called the Moscow sovereign "the Great Ulus of the Grand Duke". During the reign of Vasily III (1503-1533), the ruler of Moscow was called "White Tsar". V. V. Trepavlov considers this title as a recognition of the continuity of power of the Moscow sovereign from the khans of the Jochi ulus who previously ruled in Sarai. After the capture of Kazan and Astrakhan, the Moscow sovereign was actually recognized as the legitimate ruler of the territory of the former Golden Horde [Trepavlov, 1993, pp. 306-308]. The Nogai princes (who commanded the nomads from the Caspian Sea to the Urals and Siberia) directly addressed him as Genghisid: "Great Genghis-tsarevich line happy sovereign you are." At the throne receptions at the tsar there were three crowns: Moscow, Kazan and Astrakhan. In the XVI-XVII centuries, L. A. Yuzefovich noted, Tatar princes were often present at audiences, standing on both sides of the throne, supporting the tsar by the elbows, embodying the power of the sovereign who had royal blood at his court [Yuzefovich, 1988, p.99].

Recognition of the legitimacy of the power of the Moscow tsar over the khanates was also the appearance in the Russian army after the annexation of the Volga region, the Urals and Siberia of irregular formations of Tatars, Bashkirs, Kalmyks, Buryats, Evenks (mounted Tungus) and other steppe peoples. Subsequently, the Kalmyks, Buryats and other subjects of the Golden Horde until the beginning of the XX century called the Russian tsar-Tsagan Khan, i.e. White Khan.

The basis of the legal system in the Russian principalities in the XIII-XV centuries. They were the editorial offices of Russkaya Pravda, i.e. Russian law was applied and the Russian court operated. However, the highest judicial authority in this case was the power of the Khan and the Mongolian supreme Court.

For the population of the empire, compliance with the "Yasa" - a set of laws and regulations of Genghis Khan-was mandatory. Thus, the Yasa prescribed tolerance in matters of religion, respect for temples and clergy. Khan's labels protected representatives of religions from encroachments on their rights and privileges. Violators, if, as G. V. Vernadsky wrote, they were Mongols, were subject to a Mongol court. If they turned out to be Russians, the Russian princes had to punish them. In the event of the prince's inaction, the church could undoubtedly appeal to the khan. Therefore, when the descendants of Prince Boris of Rostov tried to seize the lands belonging to the monastery founded by Peter of the Horde, Peter's grandson turned to the khan. The Mongolian court upheld the rights of Peter's descendants [Vernadsky, 1997, p. 363].

In Russia, a minor judicial official up to the XVI-XVII centuries. they were called yaryga (from the Mongolian yargu - judge). Under the Mongol influence, new trends in the development of law in Russia are emerging. First of all, this concerned a number of norms of criminal law, in particular, the system of punishments was tightened. The changes also affected the organization of the trial, which began to lose its competitive nature. Features of Eastern law began to be introduced into the organization of judicial investigation. At the same time, along with the introduction of methods of determining the guilt of a suspect that are alien to Russian law (the use of torture), the administrative nature of the judicial power is being strengthened.

But most of all, the influence of Mongolian law was manifested in the formation of the view of land ownership. The Russian prince was considered a sovereign, but not the owner of the land. The concept of the prince as the supreme landowner arose in the Mongol (Horde) period. According to Mongolian law, the supreme owner of the land in

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The Golden Horde had a khan. The right of the prince to the territory of the principality was not hereditary, except for his domain. It was given simultaneously with the label for reigning and could be transferred, with the issuance of a new label, from one prince to another. After the collapse of the Golden Horde, this right extended to ulus rulers, including the Grand Duke of Moscow. In the "Sudebnik" of 1497. After Ivan III, the state declared itself the supreme owner of the land, dividing it into patrimonial (boyar, monastic) and state (Grand Duke) fiefdoms. The influence of the norms and institutions of Mongolian law led to the formation of a new model of legal regulation in the Russian state.

After the subordination of the Volga states, the Moscow tsar became the senior sovereign in relation to the Tatar rulers of the Trans-Volga region and Siberia. The internal organization of the former khanates was largely changed, but individual Tatar clans became part of the emerging nobility, and the system of yasach exploitation widespread in the khanates was adopted by the Russian authorities and later served as the main principle of relations with the peoples of Siberia. Even before the Kazan War, in the 1930s and 1940s of the 16th century, Tsar Ivan IV carefully read the works of Ivan Peresvetov, in which the Ottoman Sultanate was presented as ideal in many ways - primarily because of the autocracy of the padishah and his reliance on the service layers of the population, rather than on the well-born aristocracy. The practical application of Eastern state institutions is observed in the period of oprichnina and post-oprichnina regime. In the struggle of Ivan the Terrible with the well-born Russian nobility, the political significance of the serving khans increased.

A number of researchers rightly believe that the authority of the Genghisids in terms of the legitimacy of governance was indisputable in post-Horde Russia. Therefore, the candidacy for any high post of one of the representatives of the Genghis Khan dynasty could not cause (and in fact did not cause) any objections from the Russian nobility. In addition, the serving khans at that time had rather weak family ties with the Russian aristocracy, so the appearance of a candidate relatively independent of clan preferences did not create the possibility of strengthening some clans to the detriment of others. Prince Ivan Fyodorovich Mstislavsky, grandson of Khudaikul-Peter,was placed at the head of the zemstvo. After his death, the zemstvo territories were ruled for three years by a Tatar serving tsarevich, the grandson of one of the Astrakhan khans, Mikhail Kaibulovich. The deceased Mikhail Kaibulovich was replaced by the former Kasimov Khan Sain-Bulat (in epiphany-Simeon Bekbulatovich). In 1575, the tsar, in the presence of the boyars, made Simeon Bekbulatovich "Grand Duke of All Russia", and ordered himself to be called simply Prince of Moscow. The country was divided into the Grand duchy and the sovereign's lot. The reign of Simeon Bekbulatovich (as well as earlier rule in the zemstvo of Ivan Mstislavsky and Mikhail Kaibulovich) did not cause any misinterpretations in Russia and was perceived as one of the acceptable options for state administration.

Eastern (primarily Turkic-Mongol) influence was manifested in military affairs. The armed forces of the Moscow State of the XV-XVI centuries. They consisted of five large divisions: the central (large regiment), the right-hand regiment, the left-hand regiment, the vanguard (advanced regiment), and the rearguard (guard regiment). Like the Mongols, the right-hand regiment in the army of the Moscow state was considered more important than the left - hand regiment [Vernadsky, 1997, pp. 370-371]. The Horde accepted the system of military service, weapons, horse equipment, and horseman's ammunition. During the time of Ivan III and his son Vasily III, the Russian cavalry rode in the Eastern style (without spurs, with a whip, and looked almost Tatar) [Kirpichnikov, 1976, p. 48]. From the Nogai Horde, Russia received the main tribal fund for its cavalry. A saadak was borrowed - a combination of a quiver with arrows and a bow case. In hand-to-hand combat, the Russians successfully used a long curved Nogai knife. But most of all, the Nogai whip, a whip that is still preserved among the Cossacks, became known.

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The influence of the Golden Horde was also evident in the diplomatic etiquette of Russia in the XVI-XVII centuries. Both the Mongolian and Moscow ceremonials paid great attention to gifts. The Moscow rule, following the model of Mongolian etiquette, forbade foreign ambassadors to be armed during an audience with the tsar. An ambassador ( like the Mongols) is a guest of the ruler. The ruler had to provide him and his retinue with food and drink, provide shelter for the night, free movement, and carefully preserve it [Vernadsky, 1997, pp. 393-394].

The Tatar language has long served as one of the languages of diplomatic correspondence and interpretation in Russia's communication with neighboring Turkic-Muslim states. It is characteristic that the Moscow princes and tsars, who maintained intensive contacts with Muslim states, corresponded with them in the Horde protocol traditions up to the XVIII century, using the style and form of ceremonial clerical work of the Golden Horde. Letters issued by the Russian rulers of the XVI-XVII centuries and the beginning of the XVIII century to the rulers of the Islamic countries were decorated with the image of a special heraldic sign - the tugra, rather than a double - headed eagle, as the coat of arms of Russia (Faizov, 1995: 76-80). The similarity of the Russian tugra (the eastern coat of arms of Russia) with the Crimean one, the use of the graphic traditions of Crimean and Ottoman masters - Khattas (calligraphers) and the Arabic theological form common to Muslims ("By the Grace of the Lord of the Worlds") is noteworthy [Faizov, 1995, p. 77]. All this testified not only to the desire of the rulers of Russia to communicate with Muslim states in the most understandable and aesthetically close way for the addressees, but also to the organic, habitual use of Muslim symbols, which were not perceived as something alien. The tugra of the first Romanovs was not only well known to the rulers of Bakhchisaray and Istanbul, the shahs of Iran and the padishahs of the Mughal Empire in India, the khans of Azerbaijan, Khiva and Bukhara, the Altyn khans of Mongolia and the lords of the North Caucasus, but also decorated the documents of Russian merchants traveling to the East.

The Golden Horde period is associated with the ethno-cultural consolidation of the Turkic peoples, the formation of the Great Russian ethnic group and the Volga-Kama Tatars. A vast field of cultural and confessional interaction has developed in the Volga and Kama basins. This interaction has led to the fact that the Volga-Ural region has no equal in the diversity of forms of cultural traditions either in Russia or in the whole of Europe. The Crimea, which was annexed to the Jochi Ulus in the second half of the 13th century, was characterized by broad religious tolerance despite Islamization. In the Crimea, not only mosques were built, but also Orthodox churches: the Assumption Monastery (near Bakhchisarai), St. George's Monastery (Cape Fiolent), etc. [Islam in Russia ..., 1998, p. 103].

The Tsar of Moscow is the patron saint of all faiths and ethnic groups in the country. Moscow has strongly emphasized its respect for Islam. "My sovereign," the Russian ambassador Ivan Novosiltsev said in Istanbul in 1570, " is not an enemy of the Muslim faith. His servant, King Sain Bulat, rules in Kasimov, King Kaibul in Yuryev... the princes of Nogai in Romanov, all of them freely and solemnly glorify Mahomet in their mosques "[Karamzin, 1989, stlb. 105].

In the XV-XVI centuries, during the revival of art crafts in Russia, the latter were influenced by Central Asian patterns (production of scans, glazed polychrome ceramics, jewelry, etc.) [Rybakov, 1948, pp. 641 - 646]. The "Kazan style" (hipped or octagonal bell towers with platforms, bulbous eyes that replaced the helmet-shaped tops of churches, green and yellow tiles, to which Russian architects added red) is characteristic of St. Basil's Cathedral in Moscow, churches and many buildings in Dyakov, Kolomenskoye, and Novgorod (Landa, 2000, p.23).

Iconography also bears witness to Russian-Horde contacts. The famous icon of Dionysius at the end of the XV century "Alexey-Metropolitan", now kept in the Tretyakov Gallery

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in the gallery, she tells about the healing of Khansha Taidulla from an eye disease in 1357 by Metropolitan Alexey (as a sign of gratitude, she presented the metropolitan with "holy vestments"). Among the famous hagiographic icons of particular interest is the icon "Fyodor, David and Constantine" of the XVI century. The fate of the Yaroslavl Prince Fyodor Rostislavich Cherny and his sons David and Konstantin was closely connected with the Horde. "The Life of Fyodor Cherny", which has several editions of the XIV-XVII centuries, provides rare information about the life of the Russian prince in the Horde, reflecting the complexity and uniqueness of human destinies in the XIII century.

North-Western Russia (Novgorod land) was especially distinguished by the early and intense penetration of the Horde influence on jewelry and tableware (bracelets, rings, earrings, beads, bowls, ladles and other products). In the 10 - 30s of the XIV century. Both in Novgorod and in rural areas, earrings brought to Europe by the Mongols in the 13th century appear and quickly become fashionable. The degree of popularity of this type of jewelry is indicated by the appearance of an image of an earring in the ear of the Mother of God on the Pskov icon, dating from the end of the XIV-beginning of the XV century. The Golden Horde borrowings could be seen in the ornaments (decoration) of a number of panagias of the XIV-XVI centuries of Russian monasteries (Kirillo-Belozersky, Zheltikov, etc.), in the decoration of the sakkos of Metropolitan Alexey.

Borrowing of decorative elements and individual items of jewelry that developed in the Golden Horde environment can not cause much surprise, since already in the XIII-XIV centuries. in the treasuries of Russian princes and the hoards of ordinary citizens, Tatar items made of precious metals were stored along with Russian ones and passed down by inheritance. Boris Godunov, the winner of the Crimean Khan Kazi-Giray, was awarded the honorary trophy of the Battle of Kulikovo - the "golden vessel of Mamaevsky". 20 years later, the golden Mamai was presented by Mikhail Fyodorovich to his father Filaret at his consecration to the rank of patriarch (on June 24, 1619, during a solemn dinner in the Golden Chamber of the Moscow Kremlin). In the development of Russian metal art works, a particularly interesting trend is associated not so much with the literal perception of the forms and motifs of the Golden Horde decor, but with the borrowing of style principles.

The complex of elements of the Mongol-Chinese cultural influence includes some achievements in the field of material culture. In the first place among these achievements is the technology of cast iron casting. Cast iron casting was developed in China as early as the fourth century BC, and by the time of the Mongol conquest, cast iron products had become widespread; these products primarily included boilers, plow coulters, and wheel bushings. Cast iron products dating back to the 13th-14th centuries were found in Central Asia, in the Urals (on the bank of the Ural River). Iseti), in the North Caucasus, near Kiev and Lipetsk, in Belgorod on the Dniester, in Vladimir.

The word "pig iron" is of Uyghur origin (like many other terms used in the Mongol Empire). Cast-iron boilers were called chuyun kazan in Tatar, and chugun (chugunok) or kazan in Russian (Nefedov, 2006, p. 120). The question of borrowing agricultural implements is of great interest. In the XIII-XIV centuries, a new type of ploughed implement appeared in Volga Bulgaria and in Russia - a plow with a "police". Unlike the old plow, which only "scratched" the ground, the new plow partially turned the reservoir. Such ploughs have been common in China since the seventh century (Nefedov, 2006, p. 121).

Borrowing also affected clothing and everyday life. The clothing of the Mongol warriors was stereotypical and contained in the winter version a hat with earflaps (Mong. malakhai), a two-layer fur coat with fur outside (Mong. doha) and boots with felt stockings (sab), known in Russia as valenki. All this set of clothing was borrowed by both Turks and Russians; the Russian word "boot" probably came from the Mongolian "sab" (Nemerov, 1987, p.223). Clothing has changed radically: from long white Slavic shirts and long trousers - to kaftans and colored trousers, to morocco sa-

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pogam, tafyam and murmolkam. Russians began to wear oriental kaftans, dressing gowns, dokhas, fur coats, sheepskin coats, sundresses, armyaks, and bashlyks (Nefedov, 2006, p. 121).

Oriental traces also appeared in the decoration of Russian medieval choirs, which were based, apparently, on nomadic prototypes. In the tents and houses of the Golden Horde, the walls and floors were entirely covered with cloth, silks and soft felt. In the Grand Duke's palace chamber, where he received ambassadors, the walls and floors were covered with carpets. The custom of decorating your home with carpets goes back a long time, including during the early Byzantine period, but the custom of hanging carpets on the walls of Russia took over from the Horde. This tradition is still alive today [Baiburova, 1998, p. 53]. The Russian tradition of using tiles for decoration is rooted in the Golden Horde, and genetically-in Khorezm.

It is interesting that the old Russian custom, when the hostess brought a cup to the guest of honor, almost exactly coincides with what one of the guests of the Golden Horde Khan saw: "Khatun took the cup with her own hands and handed it to me. This is their extreme courtesy" [Tizenhausen, 1884, p. 294, 290-291].

More and more Turkic and Mongolian loanwords appeared in the Russian language, indicating the penetration of elements of Horde life into Russian everyday life. A lot of Russian words (Rusisms) "settled" in the Turkic languages. The diverse influence of the Horde on Russian life is evidenced by many terms taken from it: in military affairs - ataman, esaul, bogatyr, Kremlin (fortress), holster, dagger; in finance-altyn, barysh, money, treasury; in trade-barn, arshin, bazaar, customs, booth, caravan, labaz, maidan (square), magarych; in costume-atlas, bashlyk, beshmet, border, pouch, purse, kumach, morocco; in cattle breeding-lasso, karakul, flock, kibitka. There are many other borrowings (for example, basin, cup, arba, shoe, dog, argamak, herd, sheepskin coat, tagan, closet, gang, suitcase, tinsel). The Horde adopted the custom of "beating the head", i.e. bowing to the ground, choosing the ruler's bride by viewing, and "pouring" money at the coronation [Landa, 2000, p. 24].

Under the influence of the Golden Horde, a diverse ethnic composition of the population is formed in the steppe regions of the Volga and Don region, in the south-eastern regions of Russia, in the Crimea and in the North Caucasus, a synthesis of the Far Eastern components introduced by the conquerors with local traditions, with elements of culture of Central Asian and Middle Eastern origin.

The appearance of not only mixed families, but also entire ethnographic groups ("service Tatars", Cossacks) should be considered as factors of ethno-demographic mutual influence. The creation of the military-service class of the non-Russian population should be attributed to the time of the reigns of Vasily II and Ivan III. Under Vasily III, a dual regiment (mostly consisting of former Horde members) appeared in the Russian troops. Since the beginning of the Livonian War, detachments from the Kazan, Astrakhan and Nogai Tatars have been constantly participating in combat operations. S. F. Platonov wrote: "The New Baptismal Tatars were also recruited, and even the Tatars who remained in Islam; these latter were arranged for service in separate detachments and on the lands of special nests; thus, the Tatars always had lands in Kasimov and Yelatma on the Oka, and the city of Romanov on the Volga" [Platonov, 1993, p. 233]. A.V. Chernov, a researcher of the Russian Armed Forces of the XV-XVII centuries, believed that in the XVI century the number of Tatars in the Russian army reached 10% of its composition [Chernov, 1954, p. 94].

In the XIV-XVI centuries. with the entry of "Khanski men", princes, murzas to Russia, appanages are formed-uluses of serving Tatars. In 1452. Vasily II granted Gorodets Meshchersky to Tsarevich Kasim, and Ivan IV (the second half of the XVI century) allowed Nogais to settle in the city of Romanov. Communication with Nogais led to the fact that the Russian population of the Romanov district began to start sheep, learn to graze flocks, make sheepskins, sew sheepskin coats. Romanov residents bred their own breed of sheep, began to make sheepskin coats-the famous Romanov sheepskin coats. Kasimov Kingdom, Temnikovo

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and the Romanov Principality and a dozen other possessions (appanages - ulus) Moscow Rus ' played a role in Russia's emergence as a Eurasian power.

In the central part of Zamoskvorechye, from the 16th to the beginning of the 20th century, there was a Tatar settlement where translators, interpreters, merchants and artisans lived. In the toponymy of Moscow, the names of historical settlements (Balchug, Taganka, Ordynka, Arbat, etc.) also indicate the Horde influence. The heirs of the Horde natives laid the foundation for the well-known surnames in Russia: Godunov, Saburov, Dashkov, Uvarov, Yusupov, Urusov, Kochubeyev, Rastopchin, Ermolov, Karamzin, Bibikov, Chirikov, Baltin, Turgenev, Tenishev and others.

Long-term contacts of Russia with the steppe world led to the formation of new social groups. The early stages of the history of the Russian Cossacks (XVI-XVII centuries) testify to the diversity and diversity of ethno-social and ethno-cultural processes of Russian life in the post-Horde period on the borders of the country. The Cossacks, who developed the border zones of Russia, combined the characteristics and characteristics of different ethnic groups, which determined their special psychotype and specific society. The co-existence of different ethnic groups generated many synthesized forms of culture. The processes of integration and assimilation affected languages (bilingualism appeared), economic structure, artistic creativity, folklore, customs, and everyday life. The Cossacks pushed the frontiers of Russia, preserved the border territories, and actively participated in the colonization of the south and east of the country. Just 57 years after Ermak's retinue captured the capital of the Siberian Khanate (1582), Cossack detachments reached the Pacific coast. The Cossacks are associated with the era of Great Geographical Discoveries (Semyon Dezhnev, Vladimir Atlasov and many others). The existence of the Cossacks has been a feature of Russian history for many centuries. The history of the Cossacks is a vivid illustration of the dialogue of confessions and the synthesis of cultures. The Cossacks organically merged the cultural layers of the nomadic world of the steppes, mountain peoples and Slavic agricultural civilization. The Cossacks retained their socio-cultural "peculiarity" and the main feature: orientation to military service, the mentality of a warrior.

Today, the definition of Russia as a Eurasian power has become traditional. The desire to explore the European and Asian components of this historical phenomenon has also become traditional in the scientific world. Some scholars emphasized the native Europeanism of Russia with its Asian complement, while others believed that it was Asia and Asian characteristics that dictated its essence and evolution in Russian history. Still others believed that "Eurasia" is a special subcontinent that is neither Europe nor Asia, a purely Russian civilization, as A. Ya. Danilevsky, the Eurasians and others wrote about it. These different views of Russia as a Eurasian power still exist today. Ancient Rus (IX-XII centuries), which was formed as an Eastern European Slavic state, already initially included in its population the autochthonous inhabitants of the Eastern European Plain: Balts, Ugro-Finns, Turks, Iranians, which gave it a multi-ethnic and multi-confessional character. It was the germ of Russian Eurasianism. Since the political disintegration of Russia, the movement to the East has been increasing, especially during the period of constant economic, cultural, and political interaction with Russia.Polovtsians, and later under the influence of the Golden Horde. One can hardly disagree with the ethnologist L. N. Gumilev, who wrote: "The traditions of union with the peoples of Asia founded by the Prince (Alexander Nevsky - L. M.), based on national and religious tolerance, attracted peoples living in neighboring territories to Russia until the XIX century" [Gumilev, 1992, p. 135].

In 1452, Vasily II granted the town of Meshchersky to the Kazan Tsarevich Kasym for military assistance in his struggle against Dmitry Shemyaka. Thus arose the khanate (kingdom), dependent on Moscow. The Kasimov tsars played a significant role in Moscow's politics. At the same time, they were Muslims, and if they were baptized, they left

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tron and left for Moscow. Kasimov's beginning was a model of Russia's policy towards Muslims. Thanks to Kasimov and a dozen similar "khanates", Russia became a state that was not programmed for assimilation of peoples or unification of faith [Zotov, 1993, p. 109]. Kasimov's phenomenon reflected the logic of Russia's formation as a Eurasian power. After the overthrow of the Tatar-Mongol yoke in 1480, Moscow Rus became the de facto heir of the Golden Horde. It was really an amazing historical phenomenon of the creation of the Eurasian state. After joining the Moscow State of the Kazan, Astrakhan and Siberian Khanates, the advance across the expanses of Siberia up to the Pacific Ocean began. Already in the XVII century. Russia has reached the border with China. The population of Russia included Tatars, Bashkirs, Yakuts, Buryats and other peoples. Russia was becoming more and more a Eurasian state. In her hands is the northern part of the Great Silk Road, as well as the first discovered Great Fur Road.

The peculiarity of Russia as a Eurasian state was the fact that there was no sharp line between the center and the periphery, it was a single whole. Creating its own administration on the periphery, carrying out reforms of the central and local apparatus, Moscow, on the one hand, carried out an increasing centralization of local power, and on the other, pursued a flexible local policy: broad tax incentives, prohibiting the introduction of serfdom in the Volga region and Siberia, creating a multinational army, promoting local national minorities to privileged positions. elites, prohibition of forced Christianization, and religious tolerance.

Russia as a Eurasian state is a special socio-cultural world, it historically and geopolitically plays the role of a certain cultural synthesis that unites two principles-East and West. This cultural polyphonism did not interfere with the development of national cultures, each ethnic group retained its uniqueness and uniqueness. Mixed settlement (Russians lived side by side with the annexed peoples) led to a variety of contacts and mutual influences, which contributed to the formation of a common regional culture, way of life and behavior. And at the same time, this did not lead to the destruction of ethnic groups and the loss of their characteristics. The Volga-Ural region, Siberia, Crimea, and the North Caucasus have no equal in the variety of forms of cultural traditions.

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Zotov O. V. Moskovskaya Rus': geopolitika "v serdere zemli" (o ranney mikromodeli imperii) [Moscow Rus: Geopolitics "in the heart of the earth" (on the early micro-model of the Empire)].

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