Peter's reforms at the beginning of the XVIII century covered all spheres of social and economic life in Russia, including foreign trade. The emperor sought to expand foreign trade relations not only with neighboring countries, but also with remote corners of the planet. Far-sighted, erudite and purposeful, Peter the Great was convinced that strengthening the trade relations of the Russian Empire with various countries of the world would contribute to the growth of the economic, political and military power of his state. The monarch's foreign trade interests extended all the way to Latin and North America, remote corners of Asia and Africa. Of course, not all of the emperor's projects were destined to come true. Nevertheless, already in the first quarter of the 18th century, the geography of Russia's foreign trade relations expanded significantly.

Keywords: Russian Empire, Africa, trade relations, foreign trade.

Trade expeditions of Russians to Africa during the XVIII century were quite rare. In 1701, the Old Believer priest John Lukyanov visited Egypt, who in his memoirs noted: "The land of Egypt is very happy with everything, both people and housing. What to say! This is the land of the Turk - a golden bottom, stuff from Egypt to Constantinople ships go" [Afrika..., 1974, p. 55]. The Orthodox priest Andrey Ignatiev (1707) wrote about the fertility of the Nile Valley, date plantations, and plentiful rice harvests [Afrika..., 1974, pp. 56-57].

More often, Russian pilgrims came to Egypt, for example, Father Ignatius (Dentin), a monk of the Sarov monastery near Tver (1766-1776). The Ukrainian traveler Vasyl Grigorovich-Barsky wrote in sufficient detail about the commercial significance of Egypt. In his memoirs, in particular, it was pointed out: "Egypt is famous for a lot of merchants with various and precious goods, which is a haven for merchants returning from India" [Afrika..., 1974, p.72]. The author noted that merchants brought incense, myrrh, pepper, cardamom, various perfumes, porcelain dishes, coffee, etc. to Egypt from India. And from Egypt, through the Red Sea (Red Sea), rice, wheat, beans, etc. were exported in large quantities. Vasily Barsky described the Alexandria market, which he called "a great market place" [Afrika..., 1974, p. 73]. Describing Alexandria, the author of" Journey to the Holy Places " aptly noted:: "Verily, rekshe, the whole city of marketplaces is filled..." [Afrika..., 1974, p.73]. This work, in our opinion, is the best of the Russian works of the XVIII century, which presents a detailed picture of the commercial life of Egypt.

In the XVIII century. Russia was known not only in Egypt, but also in Ethiopia. Of course, this primarily concerned Coptic and Orthodox Christians. Thus, the artillery officer Manuchar Kachkachishvili, in a report to Prince G. A. Potemkin, reported that

The tsar of Ethiopia, Mikael Sahul, intends to establish friendly relations with Russia:" ... such an order has come: if he is a Russian and wants to come to our country (Ethiopia - V. Sh.), send him here, because we also really want to be friends with Russia " [Afrika..., 1974, p. 95].

In the last quarter of the eighteenth century, Russia's trade interests extended not only to Egypt, but also to other North African countries. Thus, fleet captain M. G. Kokovtsov, who visited Tunis and Algeria in 1776-1777, presented a detailed picture of the trade and economic situation of these Arab countries. The Russian traveler noted that Tunisia had a caravan trade connection with Algeria, Morocco, Istanbul, Tripoli "and to the south with the Cadenians and other Arabian peoples" [Afrika..., 1974, p. 108]. The analysis of trade routes in Tunisia and Algeria according to M. G. Kokovtsov's descriptions shows that these countries were closely connected with Constantinople, a city with which Russian merchants had long - standing and close trade ties.

At the same time, there were prerequisites for the establishment of trade relations between the Russian Empire and Morocco. So, in a letter to Catherine II, the Sultan of Morocco Sidi Mohammed bin Abdallah wrote on July 22, 1782 about his desire to develop trade with Russia: "Evenly, whatever merchant from your empire arrives in our river ports and cities, he will be distinguished by us both in arrival and departure and we prefer to every people" [AVPRI, l. 15].

The presence of a large number of goods from Africa in the markets of the capital of the Ottoman Empire allowed domestic merchants to purchase them and deliver them to Russia. It was the most important channel for receiving African goods throughout the eighteenth century. The strengthening of Russia's position on the Black Sea coast and the annexation of Crimea opened up new prospects for domestic foreign trade in the southern directions. In 1784, Empress Catherine II signed a decree on the extension of trading on the Black Sea. In particular, it lists the goods that were delivered to the Russian Empire from Egypt: dewy frankincense, rosemary, Alexandrian leaf, granulated sugar, ammonia, saffron, and other goods [Chulkov, 1786, p. 521]. The decree noted that the route to African countries is unsafe due to frequent attacks by pirates from Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia. At the same time, it was emphasized that the remoteness of Alexandria, Tripoli and other African trade centers should not serve as an obstacle for Russian merchants: "...but it cannot serve as an obstacle; for it is easier to bring all sorts of goods from the above places to Constantinople on Turkish national ships and then through the Black Sea to Russia... "[Chulkov, 1786, p. 522]. This option of carrying out trade operations made it possible to avoid dangers on the way: Russian merchants could deliver their goods to Africa on Turkish ships, reloading them in Constantinople from Russian ships. As it was emphasized in the decree, "by establishing commerce through the Black Sea with a considerable reduction in prices against the previous level, Russian goods will receive first-hand, and Russian merchants will receive first-hand goods previously brought from the indicated regions by the British and Dutch" [Chulkov, 1786, pp. 523-524]. The analyzed decree pointed out the existence of direct trade relations of Russian merchants with some regions of North Africa. In an effort to ensure and protect the interests of domestic merchants, the Empress drew attention to the need to improve the operation of the post office in Constantinople, establish consulates in a number of cities in Asia Minor, "so that all Russian ships that go from the Black Sea to the Archipelago and Ottolus to the Mediterranean Sea, the Turkish region to the African coast... let them pass by Constantinople without hindrance" [Chulkov, 1786, p. 539].

Russia's victories in the wars with Turkey and the conclusion of peace treaties, which regulated bilateral trade relations along with other issues, contributed to strengthening the position of domestic merchants in the markets of North Africa. Trade treaties were also concluded with the Ottoman Empire.

So, on June 10, 1783, the "Treatise on Trade between the Russian Empire and the Ottoman Port" was signed in Constantinople [Tractate..., 1788, pp. 115-188]. Article 45, in particular, referred to the right of Russian subjects to purchase goods in Alexandria and "other places of the Resplendent Port" [Traktat..., 1788, p. 164]. Also, articles 61 and 62 of the treaty provided for assistance to Russian subjects in the event of an attack by pirates or capture. It was about the corsairs of Algeria, Tunis and Tripoli. The same position was confirmed by the Treaty of Iasi between the Russian Empire and the Ottoman Porte on December 29, 1791. Article VII confirmed Turkey's obligations to assist in the release of Russian citizens captured by Algerian, Tunisian or Tripoli pirates [PSZRI, 1830, p. 291].

During the period under review, the Russian Empire significantly increased its economic interest in Africa and its riches. In the Russian literature, many "arguments", "notes", "opinions" and scientific works appeared, which to one degree or another dealt with the issues of trade relations between Russia and Africa. In one of the anonymous writings of that time, the following wish was expressed: "We can trade with all the eastern and southern countries, and carry our goods directly to Italy and the African coasts, even as far as Egypt, and from them receive those goods that we need, which have already reached us through a thousand painful hands and at a very expensive price "[cit. by: Firsov, 1902, p. 51]. This position is a vivid example of Russia's desire in the Catherine era to establish direct trade relations with the peoples of Africa.

A certain part of goods from Africa were re-exported to Russia from England. The laws passed by the British Parliament in the first quarter of the 19th century were aimed at developing foreign trade. The lifting of restrictions contributed to the fact that only through the Port of London trade has doubled since the beginning of the century for 30 years [Obozrenie..., 1829, p. 263]. Even more impressive was the success of the Port of Liverpool, which provided the State Treasury of England with an annual revenue from customs duties of four million ft. sterling (approximately 100 million rubles at that time-V. Sh.). From Africa, in particular, cotton, gold, silver, copper, leather, wine, wheat were delivered etc. [Zyablovsky, 1808, p. 65]. Elephant tusks from 2 to 8 feet long, red pepper, cloves, sesame seeds, skins, etc. were exported from Zanzibar and the eastern coast of Africa (Kerstenot, 1870, p. 7). Trade in these areas was largely concentrated in the hands of Indian merchants. Here, in Zanzibar, "Europe, Asia, and America exchanged their treasures with Africa" (Kerstenot, 1870, p.7).

Re-export goods from Africa, delivered by European merchants, mainly entered Russia through the Baltic ports. Since the threat of the spread of infectious diseases persisted throughout the 18th century, the Russian authorities made efforts to ensure preventive measures. Thus, by decree of May 6, 1786. Catherine II ordered the establishment of a Quarantine house on the island of Cesare. The "Regulation on the quarantine House on the island of Cescarea" explicitly stated the need to observe special precautions when allowing goods from Africa to pass through. For ships that docked at African ports, a 6-week quarantine was provided near the island of Cescarea [Regulations..., 1788, pp. 863-919].

During the Catherine era, the import of exotic fruits and berries to Russia increased. Only the import of lemons was estimated at 139 thousand rubles, coffee-at 36.5 thousand rubles, olive oil - up to 20 thousand rubles, sugar - up to 259.5 thousand pounds. [Bochagov, 1891, p. 126]. Some of these goods were delivered from North African countries.

The situation was different in South Africa. V. M. Golovnin, who visited southern Africa in 1808-1809, wrote about the peculiarities of trade in the Cape Province. A brave Russian sailor noticed that if he knew English, French or Holland-

It was possible to profitably purchase the necessary goods here, avoiding the services of sales agents [Afrika..., 1974, pp. 164-166]. Of course, it was not about constant direct contacts, but "on occasion". V. M. Golovnin's description of trade life in South Africa is a valuable source on the history of international trade in this region of the world in the early 19th century.

Napoleon Bonaparte in his" Notes " emphasized the importance of Egypt in Africa's trade relations with Europe and Asia: "Egypt produces bread, Sorochin millet (rice - V. Sh.) and vegetables in abundance. It was the granary of Rome; it is now the granary of Constantinople. It produces sugar, indigo, Alexandrian leaf (bay leaf), cassia, native alkaline salt, hemp... "[Klot-Bey, 1843, p. 249].

Pre-revolutionary literature noted that the foreign trade of the African continent was in the hands of Europeans, and the most important export items were raw cotton, ivory, gum, etc. [VAL, 1857, p. 4]. 700]. Goods were exported not only by sea, but also by land: for example, goods from Egypt were delivered to Asian states via the Isthmus of Suez. In the 20s and 30s of the 19th century, the following goods were exported from North Africa: from Libya - wool, bay leaves, nettles, dressed goat and sheep skins, ostrich feathers, gold in sand, gum, dates; from Tunisia-oil, soap, silk, horses, dates, bread; from Algeria - grain oil, wool, wax, leather, cattle, rice, tobacco, ostrich feathers, fruit; from Morocco - almonds, gum, wax, leather, oil, wool, ostrich feathers, ivory, dates, salt, tobacco, silk fabrics [Zedergolm, 1835, p. 336]. The same goods are also found in statistical compilations on Russia's foreign trade in the period under review. Most often, these goods came to the Russian Empire from European powers that had colonies in Africa, as well as from Turkey and other Asian countries. Exports from Africa to Portugal, Spain, England, and France exceeded the domestic needs of the population of these countries, so some of the goods were re-exported from European countries to Russia. A well-known researcher of foreign trade of the Russian Empire, G. P. Nebolsin noted in his work: "Egypt has many works that can be brought to Russia with profit, just as many Russian works can find easy sales in Egypt" [Nebolsin, 1835, p.52]. Among the Egyptian goods G. P. Nebolsin mentioned raw cotton, rice, indigo, frankincense, dates, bay leaves, ivory, gummi [Nebolsin, 1835, p. 53]. In turn, the goods that could, according to the author of the "Statistical Notes", find a market in Egypt are the following: drill and mast wood, ships, copper, iron, resin, wool for cloth, tallow, leather, furs, spun gold. All this was in great demand in Egypt. G. P. Nebolsin considered it useful to establish a Russian trading house in Alexandria.

One of the largest centers of trade in Africa for a long time was Alexandria. In the early 70s of the 19th century, this city was described as follows: "If it weren't for the camels on the streets, the Arab costumes of workers, and the occasional prominent mosque minarets and palm tree gardens, you could completely forget that you are in the East" [Turner, 1870, p. 55]. The commercial importance of the city increased dramatically after the construction of a railway connecting it with Cairo and the Isthmus of Suez, as well as with the opening of the Suez Canal. All the major trade routes coming from the south and west converged to Alexandria, which is why this city played the role of the" starting point " of all Egyptian transit. The Russian Consulate in Alexandria noted that in the city, as, indeed, in the whole of Egypt, "there are quite a lot of Greeks and Armenians", Russian subjects [Turner, 1870, p.59].

The opening of the Suez Canal also created new prospects for Russian foreign trade. It is no coincidence that Russia took an active part in this large-scale project: according to the number of shares of the "World Company" organized by F. M. Lesseps

Suez Canal" (24,000-W. W.), it ranked third after France and Austria [Turner, 1870, p. 101]. F. Turner noted: "We have lately begun to export to the East (Egypt) a considerable number of cattle and a certain amount of flour; probably these two main articles will be joined in time by various other goods in more significant quantities, but it is hardly possible to say anything definite at present" [Turner, 1870, pp. 102-103]. In the end, the author concludes: "Thus, the implementation of Lesseps' enterprise, if successful, can only favorably respond to the development of Russia's economic interests "[Turner, 1870, p. 103].

In 1869, at a meeting of the Imperial Russian Geographical Society, N. N. Miklukho-Maklay was informed about his trip to the Red Sea region. The great Russian traveler, who visited some cities of the Arabian Peninsula and the African Red Sea coast, noted the special role of Jeddah in the commercial life of the region. In particular, he said: "Among this city, one can meet nearby a resident of India and Morocco, Istanbul and Sudan, Persia and Algeria; a Tatar from the banks of the Volga performs prayer with a newly converted Negro from the shores of Lake Chad. The periodic influx of pilgrims who come here from remote areas on English, Dutch, and Egyptian ships and steamers makes Jeddah a significant Red Sea market, where the products of various countries are exchanged, and serves as a source of some prosperity for its inhabitants "[Zhurnal..., 1869, p. 283]. Thus, the religious centers of the Arabian Peninsula were also significant centers of international trade, where goods were delivered from three continents, including Africa. As I noted earlier in my publications, Muslim pilgrims from Russia who performed the Hajj to Mecca and visited other centers of Islam simultaneously acted as merchants [Shkunov, 2007, p. 17]. This was one of the channels through which African goods got to Russia.

By the middle of the 19th century, scientific interest in Africa had grown significantly in Russia. Among the studies of Russian scientists, a special place began to be occupied by works devoted to the economic development of North African countries. For example, A. Maksheev in the journal "Bulletin of the Imperial Russian Geographical Society" for 1860 published an article about Algeria, in which, in particular, he gave information about the foreign trade of the French colony. The author noted that among the imported goods in Algeria, a special place was occupied by linen and hemp fabrics, hemp and linen fabrics, lard - the most important export Russian goods [Maksheev, 1860, p. 47]. Only these products and raw materials were delivered to Algeria for 3,481,224 francs (calculated by me - V. Sh.). A. Sumarokov, who visited Tunis in the 1850s, described in detail the local bazaars, where you could see a wide variety of goods, including those that were sold in Russia. Thus, the author mentions ostrich feathers, which served as decorations for ladies ' caps of Russian fashionistas [Sumarokov, 1858, p. 3].

Thus, African goods were well known on the Russian market throughout the XVIII-first half of the XIX century. Direct trade contacts between Russia and African countries and peoples were sporadic, with the exception of Egypt. In the first half of the 19th century, the Consulate General of the Russian Empire operated in Alexandria, and in other parts of Africa, the Russian authorities resorted to the mediation of European powers to protect Russia's trade interests. By the middle of the 19th century, the range of goods delivered from the African continent expanded: foreign ships arrived at Russian ports with goods not only from the northern regions of Africa, but also from the south, east and west of the continent. Undoubtedly, African goods occupied a certain niche in the domestic foreign trade during the period under review: if at the beginning of the XVIII century. these were products that were mainly in demand among representatives of the aristocracy, but by the middle of the XIX century, the importance of raw materials for the developing industry (raw cotton, dyes, etc.) increased.

list of literature

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Ksrstsnot O. Journey through East Africa in 1859-1861 by Baron Karl Claus von Deken. Moscow: V. Gauthier's Printing House, 1870.

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