Libmonster ID: U.S.-1898
Author(s) of the publication: O. E. TUGANOVA

The eighteenth century is the century of the formation of the American nation. Culture played a very big role in this process. It, like political battles (albeit more indirectly), reflected real social and class relations and contradictions. During this period, the main trend in the development of American society was upward, progressive - from colonial settlements and the rule of the mother country, from severe religious intolerance in the north - eastern settlements, from feudal arbitrariness in the South to liberation, to the triumph of the young bourgeoisie and the republic, to the ideas of enlightenment, to the development of vast virgin expanses. But this main trend has never been able to overshadow other processes: the extermination of Indians, the exploitation of Negro slaves, the early development of political bossism and political corruption; the mustiness of the philistine way of life in the "bear corners"; a constant wary attitude to fresh thought; the gradual elevation of "success" and "material well-being" to the rank of symbols of "genuine wealth". americanism"; ugliness of urban life, urban poverty, aggravation of social contradictions; bitter disappointments of immigrants arriving in America. These processes developed rapidly over the course of only a century, whereas in Europe it took centuries. All this was reflected and reflected in the way of life, self-consciousness, political thought, and artistic culture of the American people.

Social thought exposed, of course, the social cross-section of society and carried a social protest. In this latter respect, it could only resort to political satire and utopianism in its various forms within the framework of bourgeois thinking at that time. Artistic culture also did not dare to do more, but it gave a more detailed and imaginative representation of reality, more sharply exposed the anatomy of social relations. It contained heroism and cruelty, sober thinking, practicality and utopia, humor and satire, pathological introspection (observation of one's own internal mental phenomena), sentimentality and the motive of violence, which testified to the complexity and inconsistency of social relations in American society already in the XVIII century. Thus, artistic culture represented the social and class contradictions of the epoch in a figurative form.

Cultural history is of crucial importance not only in itself, but also for understanding the general historical process. Without its careful study, the roots and origins of many social movements, many features of the national psychology of Americans may remain misunderstood, undisclosed. This article is an attempt to highlight such an important aspect of American history as the formation of American culture and American public consciousness. We did not set out to explore the American culture of the eighteenth century.

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all its components - it is not possible to do this in one article. The subject of our analysis is primarily the study of the national origins of American culture, its spread throughout the modern United States, the peculiarities of the development of education and enlightenment, the formation of characteristic features of artistic culture (literature, music, fine arts, theater, etc.). Our coverage of these issues was mainly based on American sources.

Soviet literature traces in some detail the development of education in the United States, as well as certain types of artistic culture: literature, theater, cinema, music, etc. However, a comprehensive study of American culture has not actually been conducted yet; the corresponding works are more literary, theater, musicology, etc. in nature than historical and cultural studies, when common features are identified. patterns of cultural development. The main focus was on the ethnic aspects of American culture in the 18th century, as well as the processes that took place in the sphere of public thought. For the study of the US culture of the XVIII century, the following are of great importance: the study of the development of American capitalism, which was carried out by A.V. Efimov, the analysis of the main problems of US history in American historiography, works on the history of literature and fine arts1 . Very important are the works of American Marxist historians W. Foster and G. Apteker2, the work of W. L. Parrington on the main trends of American thought and on the history of American literature 3, as well as a collection of statements by American writers about literature 4 . Recently, an attempt has been made in the United States to highlight the artistic culture of the XVIII century (as well as subsequent centuries) on the basis of its original samples and documents. To collect them, "centers for the study of popular culture" have been created, an independent historical discipline - "popular culture" - has been introduced in some American universities, scientific papers are published, and periodicals are published .5
The study of" popular culture", which is being conducted intensively at the present time, is like a second round of studying the origins of American art culture by American historians. Actually, folk culture has attracted their attention many times before. This area has its own traditions. As a rule, interest in folk culture, in particular folklore, increased at the time of major socio-democratic movements. The 30s and then 60s of the XX century were very fruitful in this respect. "Popular culture" is quite close to folk culture. The difference between them is that the latter is nameless - its creators are mostly unknown, it is not separated from everyday folk life, it is not allocated to a special occupation, craft, and has no commercial character. "Popular culture", on the other hand, is a commercial, general-purpose culture.-

1 A.V. Efimov, USA. Puti razvitiya kapitalizma (doimperialisticheskaya epokha) [Ways of development of capitalism (pre-imperialist era)], Moscow, 1969; "Osnovnye problemy istorii SSHA v amerikanskoy istorii ot kolonialnogo perioda do civil war 1861-1865", Moscow, 1971; "Istoriya amerikanskoy literatury", Vol. I. M. 1947; A.D. Chegodaev. Art of the United States of America. 1675-1975. Moscow, 1976.

2 У. З. Фостер. Ocherk politicheskoi istorii Ameriki [Essay on the Political History of America], Moscow, 1955. The history of the American people. The Colonial Era, Moscow, 1961.

3 V. L. Parrington. The main currents of American thought. American literature from the time of its emergence to 1920 Vol. I. Sistema vzglyad kolonialnogo perioda (1620-1800). M. 1962.

4 "Writers of the USA about literature", Moscow, 1974.

5 See, for example, R. B. Nue. The Unembarrassed Muse: The Popular Arts in America. N. Y. 1974; ejusd. New Dimensions in Popular Culture. Bowling Green. 1972; журналы "Popular Culture Methods"; "Journal of Popular Culture".

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It is widespread and generally accessible, and has largely popularizing functions. (It should not be confused either with the vulgar " mass culture "or with" pop art", which is one of the trends of avant-garde modernism in the second half of the XX century).

It goes without saying that diaries and other testimonies left by contemporaries, 6 special monographs devoted to literature and theater, music , visual arts, Negro culture, humor, the pastoral ideal in artistic creation, and the first studies of cultural geography - this new branch that has just emerged in the United States-are of great importance for studying the culture of the eighteenth century. US $ (some works are mentioned later). From the works of a general nature, we will mention the books of T. Usrtenbaker, K. Rourke7 .

American bourgeois cultural historians, as a rule, do not ignore social relations, movements of social thought, and social contradictions. But they avoid social-class analysis, and national psychology or even psychopathology is almost always brought to the fore, especially when it comes to such phenomena as the extermination of Indians, the exploitation of slaves, cruelty in human relationships, and the persecution of fresh thought.

In addition to differences in the general attitude, there is a discussion in American literature on some fundamental issues related to the characteristics of the culture of the XVIII century, for example, the direction of cultural flows, the influence of Indian culture, and what underlies the allocation of cultural regions. The debate about the nature of the spread of cultural flows has been going on in the United States for a long time. The Turner Thesis, which was put forward in 1893 and has attracted many adherents, states that the meaning of American history and its institutions can only be understood in the light of the peculiar social, economic, and psychological conditions generated by the constant movement of the "border."8 The American cultural geographer W. Zelinsky, challenging this thesis, writes: "Everything we know about the cultural process indicates that innovation tends to spread outward, starting from the hubs of social and cultural interaction, usually from those internal areas where power, wealth, and talent are concentrated. Only rarely do new ideas or images move in the opposite direction - from the periphery to the center. " 9 Apparently, the truth lies somewhere in the middle. A concrete review of the history of American culture shows that the role of the first cultural centers (New England, Virginia), of course, was very large. It was here that European influence was concentrated and spread from here. However, the national culture was also formed at the border of settlement, on the territory of

6 Parrington and Apothecary's books contain excerpts from such diaries. See also N. Crevecoeur. Letters from an American Farmer. N.Y. 1904; A. I. Utkin. American historiography of the colonial period. "The main problems of US history in American historiography...".

7 p. Rourke. The Roots of American Culture and other Essays. N. Y. 1942; Th. J. Wertenbaker. The Old South. N. Y. 1942; ej usd. The Golden Age of Colonial Culture. N. Y. 1949.

8 "The Turner Thesis. Problems of American Civilization". Ed. by G. R. Taylor. Vol. 3. Lexington. 1956; F. J. Turner. Frontier and Section: Selected Essays. Englewood Cliffs. N. Y. 1961; "Turner and the Sociology of the Frontier". Ed. by R. Hofstadter and S. M. Lipset. N. Y. 1968. См. также: А. В. Ефимов. The" free lands " of America and the historical concept of F. D. Turner. "From the history of social movements and international relations", Moscow, 1957; N. N. Bolkhovitinov. On the role of the "mobile border" in the history of the United States. Voprosy istorii, 1962, No. 9; M. V. Demikhovsky. On the "mobile border" and public lands of the United States. " The main problems of US history in American historiography...".

9 W. Zelinsky. The Cultural Geography of the United States. Englewood Cliffs, 1973, p. 34; M. V. Demikhovsky, I. V. Edict op.

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Perhaps the first, most powerful and organic impulses for the formation of national features of American culture came from here. There was an interaction of two flows: from the center to the periphery and from the periphery to the center.

European influence was predominantly English, since it was Great Britain that held sway over the vast majority of the American colonies. In addition, French, German, Dutch, and Spanish cultural influences made themselves felt. Subsequently, the French influence in a concentrated form remained in French Louisiana; German-in Pennsylvania, in the southern and central regions of Texas; Spanish, mixed with the influence of the culture of the local Mexican population - in the southwest (New Mexico, southern and southwestern Texas, part of Arizona and Colorado) with its specific cattle-breeding system. and the accompanying "cowboy complex" 10 .

American national culture also felt Native American and Negro influences. There are also different points of view regarding the impact of Native American culture. Zelinsky believes that it was relatively small11 . The researcher of the history of American "popular culture" Rai B. Nye, without giving a general assessment, notes that the colonists used medicinal herbs of the Indians, adopted their hunting methods, borrowed Indian legends, and some recipes of their cuisine .12 In the "History of American Literature" it is said that in the field of material culture, the settlers learned from the Indian tribes a number of skills in agriculture, in hunting. Native American mythology has influenced American folklore. Words from Native American languages entered the language of the colonists along with new objects and concepts borrowed from the Indians; they remained in it as numerous geographical names. The Native American theme has become one of the classic national themes of American literature .13 Apteker writes that from an early period, "the very process of colonization and the content of its history were greatly influenced by the presence and activities of populations of African and Native American origin." 14
More specifically, American researchers speak about the impact of the culture of Africans, which was most pronounced in the South. Slaves began to be imported on a large scale starting in 1619; in the second half of the XVIII century. they made up a fifth of the population of the North American colonies. In some parts of the South, they outnumbered whites. The popular Negro culture was full of grieving motives and complaints, but it was often defiant. The grief of the African slaves was expressed in religious songs-spirituals, in work songs. Impudent, secular songs extolled the Negroes and ridiculed the white masters. Slaves on southern plantations created in the XVIII century. a kind of musical form of "minstrel show", which also ridiculed the white owners. African influences on American culture were diverse. It is definitely expressed in the phonetics of the South. Negro folklore has become an integral part of American fiction. American music has absorbed the Negro melos 15 .

10 See R. H. Brown. Historical Geography of the United States. N. Y. 1948; R. D. Sale and E. D. Karn. American Expansion; A Book of Maps. Homewood. 1962; W.. Zelinsky. Op. cit.

11 W. Zelinsky. Op. cit.

12 R. B. Nуe. The Unembarrassed Muse, p. 14.

13 "History of American Literature", Vol. I, p. 10.

14 Apteker city. Op. ed., p. 22.

15 See "History of American Literature", vol. 1; M. Herskovits. The Myth of the Negro Past. N. Y. 1941.

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The differences between the cultural regions of the United States-both at the beginning of their history and today-are undeniable. These regions were formed not only depending on national (European) and racial influences, but primarily on the peculiarities of socio-economic life, political structure, and social thought. The specificity of cultural regions was formed as a result of the superimposition of national and racial distinctiveness on the difference in socio-economic and socio-political characteristics.

The upper strata of the population of Virginia and other colonies of the South (North and South Carolina, Maryland) during the XVII and XVIII centuries recognized only imported European culture and treated with disdain the Puritan culture of the Northerners. There was a different mindset than in New England: "moderation" and moral rigor were not held in high esteem. On the contrary, profligacy was considered good form. Education was much worse in the South than in New England. The first College of William and Mary in the South (in Williamsburg) was founded only in 1693 - 57 years later than Harvard University.

New England was characterized by communal life, a " Puritan leaven." For the most part, the first settlers in this area were inspired by religious and moral ideals, full of aspiration to implement them and self-confidence - all this gave a strong impetus to the formation of national traditions in culture. The educational and cultural level of the New England settlers was very high for their time. In the first generation of Puritan immigrants, for every 44 families, there was at least one person with a university education (although almost exclusively spiritual). In Massachusetts, free public schools were opened as early as 1647, and three years later in Connecticut. (There were also fee-paying schools.) In 1636, Harvard University was founded. In 1639, the first almanacs appeared. In 1713, book sales began in Boston. Books were distributed and sold by peddlers who penetrated as far as the borders of Indian holdings in the forests, as well as by special booksellers .16 New England was the first to move from "importing" culture from Europe to creating national cultural traditions, although the theocracy that prevailed here had a negative impact both on education under the control of the church and on the entire development of culture.

The study of the evolution of American culture in the XVII-XVIII centuries undoubtedly needs its own periodization. The available material allows us to conclude that the XVII century and the beginning of the XVIII century (up to the mid-20s) were marked by the overwhelming influence of European culture. But already in the XVII century. there were peculiar American features, first of all, it affected, of course, folk culture. The beginning of the development of "popular culture" can be attributed approximately to the 20-30s of the XVIII century; by the middle of the century, its national character was already clearly expressed. To a large extent, it was based on artisans and self - taught semi-artisans at that time, which corresponded to the socio - economic image of America at that time-mainly rural, artisan and semi-milled. The middle and especially the second half of the 18th century were marked by the spread of enlightenment, which greatly influenced the appearance of culture, the strengthening of professionalism, and the emergence of high standards of American art culture.

The formation of folk culture-the basis for the formation of national culture-went primarily through the development of various regions.-

16 R. B. Nye. The Unembarrassed Muse, p. 23.

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mesel. Along with this, an important role was played by the skill of oral storytelling, imbued with plots and images of not only European folklore, but also American life. Crafts, including artistic ones, reached their heyday very early. In seventeenth-century Boston, a silversmith, carpenter,woodcarver, and even a painter (but not yet an artist in the modern sense of the word ) could easily live by their craft. People moved a lot in America in the 17th and 18th centuries, and with them crafts spread. He also roamed, spreading across the country, an oral story. The narrator was a popular figure in the colonies. Interesting stories were recorded, and priests had large collections of them. Folklore reflects both the virgin nature, and its conquest by man, and the wars with the Indians. Unprecedented animals and plants, the hardships of life in vast unpopulated expanses, adventures-all this created in many ways the national fabric of the oral story, especially when it came to the Indians., (Here it is clearly seen that the national culture spread not only from the center to the periphery, but also from the periphery, from the border in the forests, to to the center.)

The brutal displacement and extermination of the Indians was portrayed almost as a divinely ordained mission of a" man of God "- a white settler in the fight against the "Satanic principle" 18. In the oral story, along with the satanic one, a comic image appeared that belittled the Indian. Most of these stories have been preserved for a long time, although the hero in them has become different: the Negro has taken the place of the Indian 19 . A characteristic feature of folk legends and myths, folk oral stories was a riot of fantasy. From the very beginning, American folklore combined religious-moral and sensational heroic-adventure motifs. This synthesis was embodied in the idealization of a strong man, a loner (in New England-the idealization of a virtuous settler, devoted to faith, family, neighbors and the New World - "God's country", "the last hope of humanity").

The attempt to realize a religious and moral ideal, a social utopia, was embodied in the creation of religious and secular colonies, where newcomers from Europe hoped to realize their hopes and dreams .20 Even the choice of geographical names indicated this aspiration: in Pennsylvania, for example, there were cities: Edenville (city of Eden), Enterprise (enterprise), Freedom (freedom), Frugality (moderation), Harmony (harmony), Independence (independence), Industry (diligence), New Jerusalem (New Jerusalem), Paradise (paradise), Philadelphia (city of brotherly love), Pleasant Unity (pleasant union), Progress, Prosperity (prosperity), Salem (peace). However, the theocracy instilled moral and religious fanaticism, transforming utopianism into extreme intolerance. Blood and violence were present not only in relations with Indians and Negroes. The medieval inquisitorial tradition has not spared the New World. An oral history and document, the settlers ' diaries speak of the persecution of "sorcerers and witches", as well as those who

17 Artisan painters performed various works: they painted houses, made heraldic coats of arms, painted carriages, gun carriages, funeral drogues, signs. In particular, sign painting was a very important craft. Both in the north and in the south, the signs were often essentially whole pictures. They always reflected the spirit of the times and for a long time were the only opportunity for a commoner to get acquainted with fine art (see V. Barker. American Painting. History and Interpretation. N. Y. 1950).

18 See the chapter on the theory of "explicit predestination" in the book "USA: Political Thought and History", Moscow, 1976.

19 R. B. Nye. The Unembarrassed Muse, pp. 14 - 15.

20 See M. Halloway. Heavens on Earth. Utopian Communities in America. 1680 - 1880. N. Y. 1966.

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he was suspected of disdain for the faith or of dissent, of sinister witchcraft trials and terrible reprisals .21
Resistance to the theocracy in the North and feudal tyranny in the South was a retreat to the "new lands", beyond the boundaries of already established communities. In the public consciousness, this was embodied in the idealization of a lone hero living in an environment of pristine nature. Popular imagination, as it were, created habitable spaces for itself, free from the direct pressure of theocracy and aristocracy, not only outside, but also in the bowels of an already established society. Humor played an important role in this regard. F. Bret Garth's reflections on humor in the" short story " relate not only to the XIX, but also to the XVII-XVIII centuries. Bret Garth notes that humor "has become commonplace in pubs, at gatherings, in the country store, and finally at public gatherings - in the mouths of speakers climbing the first tree stump they come across. Disputes were resolved, and political principles were illustrated with " funny stories." Humor has even penetrated military camps and the pulpit. And finally, to the public press. " 22 From the humorous story grew the image of the Yankee. K. Rourke retells the legends of the Yankee, who appears in different guises: a peddler and a naval officer, a craftsman and a tramp, a man who takes on all sorts of things and always succeeds in them: A Yankee is sharp, rude and at the same time sensitive, cunning, clever, witty 23 . The comic image of the Yankees seemed to reflect what the colonists wanted themselves to be, if they failed to become heroes or perfect "God's people."

Music played a significant role in American folk culture in the eighteenth century, along with oral and written narratives. Widespread singing meetings became a kind of social institution. As their wealth increased, the settlers acquired instruments and started creating orchestras. In the 17th century, members of both church and secular choirs were trained in song schools. Psalms and hymns were sung in the temples. Some of them later turned into a kind of secular music. Collections of church hymns were in great demand. New words were written for motifs brought from Europe, including psalms. In the South, the music has taken on a slightly different character, more entertaining 24 .

American folk culture revealed some of its characteristic features by the end of the XVII century. At the beginning of the 18th century, the "popular" branch of folk art culture was stimulated by an increase in the population, the emergence of large settlements and cities, the spread of education, and printing. 25 A large market for cultural products was also created as a result of the growth of the middle class and the formation of the national bourgeoisie .26 During this period, there were many forms that seemed to be transitioning from folk culture to professionalism. These are, in particular, the diaries of the settlers and their narratives about notable events and incidents: Smith, J. Hammond, and the first Governor of Massachusetts, J. R. R. Tolkien. Winthrop, W. Bradford, Judge S. Sewall of Massachusetts, Madame Knight, Colonel W. Baird.

21 "Narratives of the Witchcraft Cases. 1648 - 1706". Ed. by G. L. Burr. N. Y. 1914.

22 F. Bret Garth. The emergence of the "short story". "U.S. Writers on Literature," p. 98.

23 P. Rourke. American Humor. A Study of the National Character. N. Y. 1931.

24 Ibid., p. 79.

25 R. B. Nye. The Unembarrassed Muse, p. 2.

26 The formation of the bourgeoisie in America proceeded very rapidly. Marx said that "the bourgeois relations of production, which were imported there (to the New World - O. 7') together with their carriers, quickly flourished on a soil where the lack of historical tradition was balanced by an excess of humus" (K-Marx and f. Engels, Soch. Vol. 13, p. 42).

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A special branch is formed by written stories about the life and customs of the Indians, reflections on their history and origin, narratives about battles with them, about the stay of whites in captivity by the Indians. A General History of Virginia, New England, and the Summer Isles, by Captain J. R. R. Tolkien. Smith included a romantic version of his Indian experience, drawing an image of the Indian chief's daughter, "princess" Pocahontas. This image is firmly embedded in American fiction and drama. The Indian "genre" includes R. Williams 'book" The Key to the American Language, or a manual for studying the language of the Natives of the part of America called New England, with brief remarks on the customs, customs and beliefs of the aforementioned natives in a state of peace and war, life and death "(1643). During the colonial period, it was published 500 reports on the capture of white Indians and their release from captivity. Just as in oral folk art, these were stories of the temptations and victories of a Christian martyr. They were filled with the most incredible adventures and at the same time distinguished by sentimentality and moralizing 27 .

In architecture and the visual arts, as well as in literature, a kind of transitional form (from folk folklore to "popular culture") was the work of self-taught artisans and the work of amateurs. We have already said that the painter was, in fact, a painter-painter. Painting itself, in the proper sense of the word, was almost exclusively a portrait and was highly imitative, following European models and canons. It is obvious that the work of semi-artisans in the visual arts gave a certain number of bright "primitives", but for the most part it was just handicraft. The same can be said about the plentiful flow of versification poetry. These were mainly religious and didactic poems, meditative (filled with reflections) lyrics, epistles, epitaphs. Most often, poetic creativity was distinguished by grandeur, which corresponded to the canons of classicism. Talent, high artistic skill were not placed too high. The main thing was teaching, serving the faith, striving for "salvation of the soul", as well as having "good intentions" and"benefits" 28 . Reliability and information content were highly valued.

By about the mid-1720s, there were major changes in the life of the colonies: they grew richer, trade and shipping flourished. Class differentiation increases: planters in the South, landowners in the Dutch colonies, and successful entrepreneurs in New England are distinguished. The latter seize control of fishing, shipbuilding, harvesting and sale of timber. Large merchants gain great influence in all coastal cities. Economic progress was hindered by subordination to a foreign Power, but even earlier by the heavy pressure of theocratic power in New England. Theocracy also hindered the development of social thought and artistic culture.

27 For an annotated bibliography of works written by and about Native Americans, see A. L. Stensland. Literature by and about the American Indian. Urbana. 1973. See also Yu. P. Averkiev. On the history of Indian studies in the USA. " The main problems of US history in American historiography...".

28 K. Rourke, in his work on the roots of American culture, quotes the statements of B. Franklin, J. Washington, and J. Adams, the meaning of which is that nothing can be considered good or beautiful if it is not useful; everything is good and beautiful to the extent that it is useful. Artistic culture was recognized by them as necessary for a mature society, but not necessary in a young society, when there is a need for more practical arts. "I wouldn't give a sixpence for a painting of Raphael or a statue of Phidias," he said. Adam. Even Washington, who loved theater and music, expressed concerns that the country was too poor to afford such "luxuries" (see C. Rourke. The Roots of American Culture, pp. 2 - 7).

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The internal brakes on the development of national culture (the inertia of the South, its dependence on European culture, and the pressure of the theocracy in New England) were broken in the course of a complex combination of various processes: the struggle against theocracy, against British rule, as a result of the spread of Enlightenment ideas (especially English rationalist and materialist philosophy), and then the influence of the French bourgeois Revolution of the late XVIII century.

The theocracy in New England was thoroughly shaken up already at the end of the XVII century. Resistance to theocratic power and ideology was demonstrated by the disapproving reception of K. Mezer's book "The Wonders of the Invisible World" (1693) and the public repentance of Judge Sewall, who declared that he had made a mistake by taking part in one of the witchcraft trials. The theocracy was also weakened by the new charter received by Massachusetts in 1691 from the mother country, according to which the religious qualification was replaced by property 29. In the eighteenth century, Boston was flooded with pamphlets, addresses denouncing theocracy, arguments and counterarguments in religious disputes, and revealing abuses of British power. All these motives and themes were also rapidly developing in the newspapers.

The struggle of ideas was also going on with great force in higher educational institutions. By the mid-eighteenth century, the following colleges were operating in the colonies:Harvard, Yale, William & Mary, Princeton, Pennsylvania, Columbia, Rutgers, Brown, Dartmouth, and Hamden-Sydney. These colleges, many of which were established by the clergy, taught mathematics, astronomy, physics, geography, and other natural science subjects. In general, the study of natural sciences was widespread in the American colonies of the XVIII century. B. Franklin became a great figure of American science. But, in addition, the names of K. Colden, a botanist, philosopher, mathematician, and physician, were known; D. Rittenhouse, an astronomer; and J. P. Blavatsky. Morgan, the founder of medical education in America; the botanists J. Bartram and W. Baird II; and the ornithologists J. R. R. Tolkien. Audubon and A. Wilson; the physician, botanist, physicist, astronomer, cartographer D. Mitchell; the physician, botanist, agronomist J. The zoologist and botanist J. R. R. Tolkien. Lawson; M. Catesby, author of the Natural History of the Carolinas; A. Garden, botanist and zoologist. The study of natural sciences was not considered to be contrary to religion, and it is noteworthy that the pillar of the theocracy, K. K., was not considered to be contrary to religion. Mather was a fellow of the Royal Society, recognized the Copernican system, and advocated the introduction of smallpox vaccinations. However, the spread of education and the study of natural sciences led to a decrease in the number of adherents of dogmatic and religious views. Even in the strict Harvard College in 1724, K. Meser was not elected to the post of president, preferring the less dogmatic B. Wadsworth, and this institution was increasingly inclined to a moderate line . By the middle of the eighteenth century, the dominance of religious dogmas had been dealt a decisive blow everywhere, and secular interests, especially social and civil interests, were beginning to take a leading position in the spiritual life of society.

The middle and especially the second half of the 18th century was characterized by a wide spread of literacy, printing and reading. Since the end of the 17th century, printing houses have been established, bookstores and libraries have been opened. By the 1870s, for example, there were 50 bookstores in Boston, Philadelphia and New York, and

29 For episodes in the struggle against theocracy and the "Great Awakening" movement, see G. Apteker. Edict op.

30 Th. J. Wertenbaker. The Golden Age of Colonial Culture, p. 18.

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over 30. In 1754, the first public library was established in New York, and in 1756-in Boston. The establishment of the" Library Society of Philadelphia " contributed to the intensive growth of libraries in the colonies. In 1745-1763, at least 17 were founded, and one - third of them were founded in Pennsylvania itself. The Charleston Library Society, founded in 1748, became the center of cultural life in the Carolinas .31
A cheap book came from England and quickly gained popularity. Almanacs were very common. By the end of the eighteenth century, New York, Boston, Philadelphia, and most other major cities had at least two or three series of almanacs. The famous "Poor Richard's Almanac" by B. Franklin began to be published in 1733 (and was published for 25 years with an average annual circulation of 10 thousand copies) .32
Newspapers in America were published in 1704 , when the Boston News Letter, conservative in its orientation, began to appear. In 1719, the first issue of the conservative Boston Gazette was published, and in 1721, the first organ of the opposition, the New England Courant, was born. Franklin, the half-brother of B. Franklin, who gathered around him a group of young essayists and wits who dubbed themselves members of the" Hell Club " and launched an attack on the prim rulers in Boston. This body played a major role in the development of early educational journalism. In contrast to the New England Courant, a" respectable "newspaper, the New England Weekly Journal, was published in 1727. In the south, the Maryland Gazette, Virginia Gazette, and South Carolina Gazette were published. By 1765, the colonies already had 43 newspapers, mostly weekly. Almost half were in New England 33 . In the 18th century, the magazines "American Mercury", "Philadelphia Minerva", "Pennsylvania Magazine", "Massachusetts Magazine", "New York Magazine", "American Moral and Sentimental Magazine" were published, which published literary works, published drawings and engravings. B. Franklin in 1741 began publishing " General Magazine and Historical Chronicle For All the British Plantations in America". This was the first edition intended for all the colonies: the magazine reprinted materials not from English, but from American newspapers and magazines of different colonies.

Almanacs, calendars, newspapers, and magazines have taken a prominent place in popular reading. There was also a genre of a kind of poetic journalism, or journalistic poetry. It was the so-called broadside-a piece of paper with verses 34 printed on one side (broadside was often posted).

From the 1720s to the 1730s, North American cultural centers were distinguished by their own characteristics. Boston - the heart of New England-began to take on a secular and cosmopolitan character. In Philadelphia, poetry, art collecting, scientific, educational and publishing activities flourished (until the end of the XVIII century). In the South, Charleston and Williamsburg became the centers of cultural life.

Already in the 18th century, we can speak not only about the folk culture of Negroes, but also about the emergence of transitional forms leading to a professional culture. Negroes were taught crafts, including artistic ones.

31 R. B. Nye. The Unembarrassed Muse, p. 23; С. Rourke. The Roots of American Culture, p. 4; Th. J. Wertenbaker. The Golden Age of American Culture, pp. 44, 69 - 71, 140.

32 J.Wiley and Sons. The First One Hundred and Fifty Years. N. Y. 1957; W. Charvat. Literary Publishing in America. 1790 - 1850. N. Y. H959.

33 "The History of American Literature", Vol. I, p. 4. 49; V. Parrington. Op. ed., pp. 184-185; S. Rourke. The Roots of American Culture, p. 40"

34 См. O. Winslow. American Boadside Verse. New Haven. 1930.

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They composed music and poems for the white masters. Since the 40s of the XVIII century, written literature of African-Americans has appeared: the works of L. Terry (1746), Y. Hammon (1760), B. Hammon (1760), F. Whitley (1773), G. Vass (1789). These works were dominated by White beliefs, beliefs, and canons in their form, as well as in their perception of the world, especially religious ones, in contrast to popular Black art .35
American culture in the second half of the eighteenth century is characterized by a variety of thoughts, ideas, images, and forms. A departure from rigid classicism with its inherent straightness, rigidity of lines and forms is being made. This was evident in architecture, interior design, and visual arts. It became a custom to paint ceilings, walls, doors and wood carvings as interior decoration of houses, wallpaper in the Gothic and Chinese style. There was a growing demand for expensive furniture and silverware. In the interior, the Rococo 36 style is becoming widespread . There are schools of painting and glass painting, and the first collections of paintings appear (Philadelphia was especially famous for this), accessible, however, only to a narrow circle of people close to collectors. They are becoming a tradition of traditional music and dance, including in Boston. Theater painting emerges 37 .

Changes in lifestyle have affected the visual arts. Genres of paintings have diversified. Pastels and miniatures, as well as the genre of group portraits, developed; figures inscribed in the landscape, anecdote paintings, and paintings based on biblical and ancient mythological subjects containing some kind of moral teaching appeared. In the colonies, not only self-taught and amateur artisans are engaged in fine art, but also professional artists. The works of truly talented artists, such as R. Fick, B. West, and J. S. Copley, have become widely known. 38
As already noted, the literature of the eighteenth century was characterized by the motives and traditions of oral storytelling and at the same time didacticism and edification, often in a very sentimental form. Such were, in particular, Sunday school books, which were usually of a small format and were therefore referred to as "little books" .39 They contained stories about greedy landlords, people who fell into debt bondage, fugitive bonded labourers, trials of insolvent debtors, poverty, illness, drunkenness, gambling, prostitution, prison, suicide, and women who became the only support of the family .40 These stories reflected the real problems and social ills of American society. Referring to the question of sentimentalism in the article "Socialist Humanism and the Second Culture", American Marxists G. Leroy and W. Beitz write: "Even in the period of the revolutionary rise of capitalism, sensitive people reacted to the costs of social transformation with feelings of irritation and indignation. The slave trade, for example, or the extermination of the Indians in our country could not simply be written off, portraying them as inevitable phenomena accompanying a progressive social system." Authors define sentimentality-

35 См. "The Black American Writer". Ed. by C. W. E. Bigsby. Vol. II (Poetry and Drama). Baltimore. 1969, pp. 41 - 43; "The Poems of Phyllis Wheatley". Ed. by J. D Mason. Jr. Chapel Hill. 1966, p. 33; "Negro Poetry in the USA". M. 1971.

36 V. Barker. Op. cit., pp. 70 - 81, 177, 178.

37 Ibid., pp. 86, 97, 98, 128, 192.

38 Ibid., pp. 170 - 176.

39 CM. G. A. Schneider. Millions of Moral Little Books; Sunday School Books in Their Popular Context. "New Dimensions in Popular Culture". Bowling Green. 1972.

40 CM. L. D. Loshe. The Early American Novel. N. Y. 1902; H. Brown. The Sentimental Novel in America. Durham. 1940; A. Cowie. The Rise of the Afnerican Novel. N. Y. 1948.

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self-indulgence as "indulging in lofty thoughts while simultaneously being unwilling or unable to see the conditions that must be created for these lofty thoughts to be connected to reality... All forms of bourgeois humanism are marked by this kind of sentimentality. " 41
Along with didactics and sentimentality, the heroic and sensational continued to exist in literature and art, violent motives were voiced, a twilight state of mind was depicted, and an atmosphere of horror was present. In the so-called Gothic novels, the same theme was repeated: hopeless despair, moral degradation, violence.

In popular culture, life situations and images were opposed (mostly unconsciously) to didactic-sentimentalist and Gothic motifs. Especially life-giving was the humorous beginning. Humor brought down the immeasurable elevation, stiltedness, helped to brighten up the harsh life. (But he was also sentimental, and he was also full of affection for anything truly American.)

Important features of American culture in the 18th century were enlightenment and a high level of amateur activity of the American population. Enlightenment based on religion was embodied, in particular, in Sunday schools, which were borrowed from England. They contributed to the spread of literacy, libraries, and the development of printing. But there was also enlightenment in the secular version. An example is the Junta (or "Leather Apron Club"), which was founded by the young B. Franklin in 1728 in Philadelphia. It was a community of young artisans, apprentices, and tradesmen who aimed to educate themselves and promote useful ideas and knowledge. Members of the society declared that they were committed to "being useful to humanity, to their country, to their friends, to themselves" and pledged allegiance to "the truth for its own sake" and "love for all people, regardless of their opinions or religious beliefs." From this "Junta" the American Philosophical Society was formed in 1769. Its first president was B. Franklin, and at the end of the XVIII century. it was headed by T. Jefferson * 2 . On the eve of the revolution, a "Society for the Promotion of Useful Knowledge"was formed in Williamsburg, Virginia.

The spread of libraries, printing, and education contributed to the introduction of Western European philosophical and political doctrines. Educated Americans read not only the Greek and Roman classics, religious literature, natural science books, and European novels, but also the works of Voltaire, Montesquieu, and Rousseau, which is especially important from the point of view of maturing the ideological prerequisites of the War of Independence .43
As the revolutionary storm approached, the balance of various elements within American culture changed. It was filled with patriotic ideas, political thought and political passions. Satire directed against the British authorities and the colonial order is being developed (primarily in the works of J. R. R. Tolkien). Trumbull and B. Franklin). Broadsides have acquired a combative character. Not a single act of the English Parliament and Crown, not a single order of the Ministry of Commerce, was complete without the protest of the colonists, which was often expressed in the form of ballads. The Broadsides celebrated the American victories against the British and mourned the fallen heroes who were still alive.-

41 G. Leroy and U. Beitz. Socialist Humanism and Second Culture. "Political Affairs", Vol. L. N 4, April 1971, p. 23.

42 G. N. Sevostyanov, A. I. Utkin. Thomas Jefferson, M. 1976, p. 245.

43 See V. V. Sogrin: On the ideological origins of the War for Independence. Voprosy Istorii, 1975, No. 9.

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rejections, retreats, and infidelities. And the engravings began to acquire an increasingly propagandistic character. Such works include The Boston Massacre (1770) and the Battle of Charleston (1775), which were also published in periodicals, such as the Pennsylvania Magazine.

During the War of Liberation, a tradition of patriotic folk ballads emerged in American folklore. The Ballad of Nathan Gale is widely known. Humorous ditties "Yankee Doodle"became an organic part of the people and American creativity. By the end of the War of Independence, a well-developed secular music had developed. Widely distributed song collections included patriotic and political songs, ballads, hymns, and game songs.

During the war, new genres of literature were born: the patriotic adventure story, close in character to the novel, patriotic plays (among them - "The Battle of Bunker Hill" (1776) and " The Death of General Montgomery "(1778) by H. G. Brackenridge). The interest in realistic representation of reality is growing. Satirical genres get a new incentive.

The moralizing function of artistic works was preserved even in the XVIII century .44 But from the first half of the XVIII century. the aesthetic side is becoming more and more important: an artistic vision of the world and artistic skill. In the second half of the 18th century, secular moralizing was formed, based on the code of bourgeois morality, appealing to expediency, "common sense", enlightenment, reason, and the incentive to enrich oneself, which is opposed to religious dogma. This was expressed, in particular,in the Autobiography of B. Franklin and in many of his essays. Franklin begins his" Advice to the Young Merchant, "signed" The Old Merchant, "with the famous words:" Remember that time is money. " 46 Bourgeois secular morals of the second half of the eighteenth century modified the Puritan morals of the first settlers and adopted them.

The rationalistic justification of morality in social thought was one of the harbingers of the fact that the young bourgeoisie was beginning a decisive battle for its supremacy. The ferment, the preparation for battle, and the battles themselves of the revolutionary period in America contributed to the spread of both rationalist philosophy and romanticism, which suddenly flooded in from Europe. In the Old World, Romanticism and the associated glorification of nature, all living things and "natural", the idealization of life in nature signified a desire for the liberation of the human person, to break the feudal-serf and class ties. These motives became close to pre-revolutionary and post-revolutionary America. Romanticism was embraced by the first prominent American poet, Fr. Freneau, as well as such prominent writers as H. Crevecker and C. B. Brown 47 . Freno has mysterious and scary images in the spirit of "Gothic" romance anticipating-

44 It has been preserved not only in literature and songwriting, but also in the visual arts. The famous American artist B. West, working during the War of Independence in London, produced in his studio-factory about 3 thousand paintings, which were accompanied by moral explanations written by lm himself (V. Barker. Op. cit.).

45 "Works of the Late Dr. Benjamin Franklin Consisting of His Life Written by Himself, Together with Essays, Humorous, Moral and Literary, Chiefly in the Manner of the Spectator". Vols I-II. L. 1806.

46 Ibid. Vol. II, p. 33.

47 See "Letters of an American Farmer" by H. Crevecoeur (1782). This work develops the views (typical of some French enlighteners) of the American republic as the embodiment of the Roussoist dream (H. Crevecoeur. Op. cit.).

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the fantastic visions of S. Coleridge and E. Poe prevail. Brown, who belonged to the post-revolutionary generation of American writers, was particularly committed to this style.

After the War of independence, there were new and significant changes in public life and culture, the prerequisites of which had been maturing for a long time. National features of American culture are being revealed with increasing force. The sharp edge of criticism is now directed not only against the British, but also against the ulcers of American society itself; public thought and art culture are increasingly attracted to internal conflicts. The line of affirmation and enrichment of the distinctive American culture in the post-revolutionary period (up to the naive desire to deny the evidence of European influence and to assert and justify its "exclusivity") is manifested decisively in all areas.

In the field of painting in the revolutionary period - since 1775 - M. Pratt began to work, who was a well-known portrait painter, but was especially famous for his paintings-signs .48 The heroic pathos was most strongly reflected in the historical painting of J. R. R. Tolkien. Trumbull, who created, in particular, a series of paintings depicting episodes of the War of independence and realistically capturing the images of its heroes. The work of C. W. Peel, a versatile artist and scientist, founder of the Pennsylvania Academy of Arts and the Natural History Museum, had a pronounced national character. His work was greatly influenced by the legacy of the artless" limners " (semi-self-taught artisans) of the colonial period; he played a particularly important role in establishing the national American tradition in the visual arts. Finally, H. Stewart's portraits show the whole of post-revolutionary America. Thus, the national professional fine arts are flourishing (although the creativity of"primitive" artists has not yet died down) .49
The post-revolutionary period brought great changes to the architectural style of America, where, unlike other areas of artistic culture, classicism began to flourish. Its leading master, who embodied "uniquely original national qualities"50 , was T. Jefferson, a talented architect who sought to introduce the traditions of the ancient classics into national architecture 51 . Jefferson replaced the puritanical asceticism of colonial-era buildings with" heroized", solemnly monumental architecture. This style became predominant at the beginning of the XIX century.

Since the last quarter of the XVIII century, the American theater begins its national formation, In 1787 the first performance of the play "Contrast", written by R. Tyler, took place. It was a Sheridan-esque comedy of morals, mocking the fascination with foreigners and asserting the advantages of the national, the American, and raising and idealizing the image of the American. In this comedy, Colonel Manley, the ideal American, is contrasted with Bill Dimple, the Englized coxcomb. In the same comedy, the comic image of a Yankee first appeared on stage 52 .

The national character was clearly expressed in the "minstrel show" - a comic musical work originating from the Negro folk art. It portrayed a false picture of the supposedly patriarchal life of slaves. The Negro was usually here

48 V. Barker. Op. cit., pp. 222-224; A.D. Chegodaev. Op. ed., p. 15.

49 A. D. Chegodaev. Op. ed., pp. 19-24.

50 Ibid., p. 17.

51 See also G. N. Sevostyanov and A. I. Utkin. Op. ed., pp. 154, 226,349.

52 See C. Rouke. American Humor, pp. 3 - 9.

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a carefree and clownish figure. The music of the Minstrel Show has played a major role in the development of modern American musicals .53
The tradition of grandiose and sensational spectacles continued (in particular, the productions of Shakespeare's plays in the XVII and XVIII centuries were distinguished by this). They celebrated victories in the War of Independence. In 1793, a play called "The Battle of Bunker Hill" was performed in Boston; troops participated in it, rifle and artillery fire was played, fires broke out, and the whole spectacle ended with a grand parade. In the same year, The Tempest was staged in Charleston, based on Shakespeare, in which the storm at sea was reproduced in the most natural way, the death of the fleet, Neptune was racing across the sea in a chariot made of clam shells. In 1796, the spectacle" Apotheosis of Franklin", staged in Charleston, depicted the River Styx, the Temple of Remembrance, Franklin's ascent to the Champs-Elysees. The wild, extravagant scenes of the show were especially admired .

The young republic celebrated its victory and at the same time discovered its own social ills. After the revolution, the motive of national unity very soon gave way to moods associated with the aggravation of social contradictions. Agrarian movements and the development of capitalism, the conflict between industrialists and farmers, the struggle between federalists and democrats, the economic crisis, the democratic movements of the 80s of the XVIII century, including the uprising of D. Shays, the struggle of supporters and opponents of the French Revolution, the clash of influences of English liberalism and French romanticism-all this was reflected in art culture.

The struggle between federalists and democrats was reflected in the rise of poetic creativity, including satirical ones. On the side of the Democrats was a participant in two revolutions - the American and French - the poet Freneau. He hailed them as a prelude to a "worldwide democratic revolution." Widely known are his ode " God Save the Rights of Man "(1791) and his poem " On False Systems of Government "(1793), in which the author acts as a deist and advocate of natural human rights. With his satirical poems Freneau struck the British, and after the victory of the revolution-representatives of the propertied classes, the federalists. In some of his works, he narrates on behalf of an ordinary soldier, Peter Slender, who gave everything for freedom and was forgotten by everyone after the victory. To the name "Peter Slender" Freneau added "one of the bestial mass." 55 A prominent representative of the revolutionary wing of the American Enlightenment was also the poet D. Barlo (who broke with the "Hartford wits" and moved to democratic positions).

53 C. Wittke. Tambo and Bones: A History of the American Minstrel. N. Y. 193O, H. Nathan. Dan Emmet and Early American Ministrelsy. Norman. 1961; With Rourke * American Humor.

54 CM. R. B. Nye. The Unembarrassed Muse, pp. 167, 182, 183, 188.

55 See Ph. Freneau. Poems. Vol. I. Princeton. 1902.

56 "Hartford Wits" (after the name of the city in Connecticut) - a circle of anti-democratic satirical poetry. They were educated men of letters, lawyers by profession, priests, merchants, closely connected in their property and social status with the conservative circles of the bourgeoisie. The most significant among the "Hartford wits": J. Trumbull, Timothy Dwight, Theodore Dwight, D. Barlow, L. Hopkins, D. Humphries, R. Alsop. During the Revolutionary War, the Hartford Wits fought against the British. At the end of the war, all of them, with the exception of Barlo, opposed the democratic movement. The main object of their hatred was the "mob", as well as"French godlessness". Most of the political satires were created jointly by the Hartford Wits. Their most important works were "Anarchiad", "Echo" and "Political Greenhouse" ("The Anarchiad, a Poem on the Restoration of Chaos ami Substantial Night"," The Echo"," The Political Greenhouse") (see V. Parrington. Op. ed., pp. 444-446).

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Barlow saw himself as a "citizen of the world" and defended the natural rights of man in his poetry.

By the beginning of the 19th century, the genre of so-called revealing literature was being formed. She vividly portrays the social ills of American society, attributing them, however, only to the urban way of life. The urban dweller is portrayed as flawed and imperfect in comparison with the "simple" and wise, moral rural dweller. In a sentimental and romantic light, life in nature and nature itself are presented. "God's country"," great utopia " turned out to be an unrealized and unrealizable dream, but the democratic public stubbornly refused to give it up. The pastoral ideal inherent in the consciousness of the first settlers who left life in the cities of the Old World was now reinforced by the influence of physiocrats who called for the return of man to the "natural state". T. Jefferson adopted the ideas of the physiocrats in his political teaching. In a concrete historical context, the rural ideal and the celebration of nature reflected in American literature the struggle between industrialists and farmers that began in the 80s of the XVIII century.

The ideal of rural pastoralism is firmly rooted in the national consciousness of Americans and, accordingly, in American art culture. Over time, it has acquired complex strata and has become very ambiguous. The theme of rural pastoralism, intertwined with social Utopian protest, still retains its democratic character. But the ideal of rural life and the idealization of ordinary rural people or small-town residents, the juxtaposition of this life to big cities and urban intellectuals, later also became the favorite motives of social demagogy of the right and ultra-right.

A peculiar, specifically American variation of the "rural pastoral" was the idealization of the Indian way of life in the eighteenth century. This is expressed, for example, in Freneau's poem "Indian Cemetery", in the works of Crevecoeur. In the twelfth letter of the American farmer (1782), he bitterly laments the disasters that have befallen the people as a result of the conflict with the mother country, and the outbreak of hostilities. He declares that he can not take either side, and plans to flee to the Indians in order to find peace and quiet at the cost of giving up the benefits of civilization.

Although utopian trends have long remained in force, a realistic and satirical dissection of American bourgeois society, which is young but already revealing sharp contradictions, hypocrisy, venality of politicians, violence and more violence, is also beginning. An example of such realistic satire is H. Brackenridge's novel "Modern Chivalry, or The Adventures of Captain John Farrago and Teague O'Regan, his servant" (the first part was published in 1792, the second-at the beginning of the XIX century). Here is a broad panorama of American life: "bear corners" on the border (without the traditional emotion of life "in nature", in a "natural" state), congress, college, school, court, newspaper, clergy, sectarians, inns, fair, horse racing, duels, election campaign. The novel makes fun of uncouth and ignorant candidates chasing warm places, city hucksters, members of Congress. Bracken Ridge was an outspoken critic of slavery, land speculation, electoral abuse, and the gross power of the money bag. His book contains many new examples of the bourgeois way of life and the bourgeois political mechanism .57
57 Note that Brackenridge's position is dual. Captain Farrago embodies an enlightened mind; his Irish servant, Teague O'Regan, is an ignorant and vain man. (Opponents of the Democrats constantly portrayed the Irish as "the main ones".)

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The critical attitude towards the social and class foundations of American society is becoming stronger and stronger. Among educated Americans, there is growing condemnation of the slave system. It first appeared in American literature about a hundred years after slaves were introduced to the New World. In 1700, Sewall's pamphlet "The Sale of Joseph" appeared - the first anti-slavery work (Sewall proposed replacing slave labor with the work of white servants assigned for a certain period of time). The spread of the Enlightenment crystallized anti-slavery beliefs. B. Franklin in 1790 wrote a parable in which he denounced slavery 58 . T. Jefferson spoke out against slavery, although he did not offer a quick and radical solution to this issue. Freneau, Crevecoeur, Brackenridge and others condemned slavery in their works. Already in the eighteenth century, the foundations were laid for the sharp split in politics over the Negro question, which was fully revealed by the middle of the nineteenth century and culminated during the Civil War.

During the 18th century, American culture underwent a significant transformation of ideas and forms, and the formation of a national culture took place with all its main positive and negative features associated with the emerging social consciousness, public thought, and way of life in the United States, reflecting the growing social and class contradictions. Even in this period, the bourgeois culture, which is self-satisfied and masks social contrasts, and the democratic culture, which is restless, indignant, struggling, searching, and invariably connected with progressive social movements and the broad working masses, are already being revealed.

troublemakers " in America.) Similarly, the position of T. Jefferson is ambivalent, fearing both the ambitious aspirations of the aristocrats and the" rabble", fooled and exploited by demagogues - tools of the aristocracy.

58 "Works of the Late Dr. Benjamin Franklin...", pp. 96 - 101.

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