Introduction

One of the most important functions of personal protective equipment from the time of their appearance in the development of military affairs in ancient times is to protect the warrior's head from striking blows with offensive weapons of the enemy. The need for protective heads was realized even before the development of metallurgy and metalworking in connection with the spread of such a formidable impact weapon as a stone drilled battle axe. A single blow on the head with this axe was enough to knock the opponent out of action. The most ancient combat head coverings and other head protection devices were probably made from organic materials (Gorelik, 1993, p. 154). The invention and spread of bronze casting and thin-walled casting technology in the developed Bronze Age opened up wide opportunities for the manufacture of large metal-intensive weapons, including protective ones. In the Central Asian region, the oldest cast bronze helmets known to date come from Late Bronze Age tombs in Mongolia (Varenov, 1994, p. 91; Erdenebaatar and Khudyakov, 2000, p.140; Khudyakov, 2001, p. 60-63). Bronze battle heads with a spherical or conical dome and decorative design were also used for protection by warriors of nomadic peoples of the Scythian period. Bronze helmets dating back to the Early Iron Age have been found in the Altai and Central Asia (Gorelik, 1993, p. 168-170; Khudyakov, Tabaldiev, and Soltobaev, 2001, p. 101-104). The most ancient battle heads made of iron found in the burials of Central Asian nomads date back to the Xianbian period. In the Laoheshen burial ground in Manchuria, helmets were found consisting of narrow iron plates connected by leather cords and crowned with hemispherical finials (Rec and Yu Su-Hua, 1999, p. 50; Khudyakov and Yu Su-Hua, 2000, p. 41; Bobrov and Khudyakov, 2005, p. 137-139; Gorbunov,2005). 2005, p. 214]. In the subsequent period of the Middle Ages, iron helmets of various designs were used by warriors of many nomadic states of Central Asia: ancient Turks, Uyghurs, Kyrgyz, Kimaks, Khitans, Mongols, etc. [Gorelik, 1979, tal. 97-99; 1987, p. 168; Khudyakov, 1980, p. 129; 1991, p. 85; 1997, p. 53]. Most of these finds in Southern Siberia and Central Asia date back to the Late Middle Ages (Gorelik, 1979, tal. 99; Bobrov and Khudyakov, 2003, p. 141-144; Khudyakov and Bobrov, 2003; Voitov and Khudyakov, 2004, p. 102]. Due to their relative rarity and high value, almost all of them were repeatedly analyzed, attributed, and published.

In addition to its main, protective, function, combat heads, as well as military headstones

This work was supported by the Russian Foundation for Basic Research (project N 04 - 06 - 80248).

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headdresses performed an extremely important, socially significant symbolic role, indicating that the helmet-bearer belonged to the military class, the caste of professional warriors or the highest military aristocracy. In late medieval Mongolia, there was even a special term for a warrior wearing a helmet - "duulgat".

In ancient times, helmets made of scarce non-ferrous metal were very highly valued. They were richly decorated with bird feathers, horsehair tufts, horns, and other details that performed socially significant, distinctive, symbolically protective, or intimidating functions. About the helmets of outstanding heroes and military leaders, as well as about their armor, legends were formed, they were attributed to magical properties that protect their owners from harmful effects from enemies. According to the design of the helmet, a legendary hero or a real military figure could receive a distinctive nickname, under which he entered the mythology and historical memory of the peoples on whose lands he performed his historical deeds. This was the nickname of the great commander of antiquity Alexander the Great Zulkarnain-Two-horned Iskander, given by the Persians, who took his helmet, decorated with the image of the wings of the Greek goddess of victory Nike, for frightening horns. The distinctive features of the warlords ' battle heads not only distinguished them from the mass of ordinary soldiers, but also served as important identification marks that allowed subordinates to see their leaders during battle thanks to the high pommels, plumes and plumes on their helmets. The knowledge that their leader, invincible and invulnerable, was fighting alongside them inspired confidence in the victory of ordinary soldiers. At the same time, the fall of the helmet due to the death, injury or capture of a noble helmet-bearer, leader or commander could instill in his tribesmen uncertainty in their abilities, undermine their faith in the success of the battle, cause panic and lead to defeat in the battle [Ratzel, 1904, p.209].

In the Middle Ages, when iron helmets became a necessary part of the protective equipment of professional soldiers, vigilantes or knights, such a symbolic function was performed by richly decorated and ornamented ceremonial battle heads of noble soldiers and military leaders.

Each such find is of exceptional value, because some ceremonial helmets belonged to outstanding historical figures, were made and decorated by individual order. Due to their special value, such battle heads were also used for diplomatic purposes. Richly decorated, stamped with gold and silver, ceremonial helmets and armor were usually presented as gifts to foreign rulers in order to win them over and achieve the necessary action or decision. The leading Russian museums, the Armory of the Moscow Kremlin and the State Hermitage Museum store and display ceremonial helmets of Mongolian and Oirat noble warriors and military leaders dating back to the late Middle Ages and Modern times. They were presented as diplomatic gifts by the Khalkha-Mongol khans and Dzungarian kontaish to the Moscow tsars, captured along with other war trophies, or acquired by wealthy collectors. Among these museum exhibits, ceremonial helmets from the State Hermitage Museum collection from the exposition dedicated to the culture of medieval Mongolia * are of quite independent interest.

From the history of studying Mongolian ceremonial helmets from the Hermitage collection

In the past, the combat headlands we are considering have repeatedly attracted the attention of weapon historians and museum specialists. According to available information, these three exhibits were originally kept in the Tsarskoye Selo Arsenal, created in 1811, from where they were transferred to the collection of the Imperial Hermitage.

The greatest attention of scientists was paid to the helmet with images of dragons on the dome. In the inventory of the Hermitage collections of 1891, it is designated as "Mongolian misyurka shishak, with cheek pads, chain mail backplate, blued steel, with a gold notch and stones" and dated to the XIII-XIV centuries [Imperial Hermitage..., 1891, p. 363]. However, the picture does not show the earflaps and the back of the head. Perhaps the description includes data related to another Mongolian helmet from the Hermitage collection, which had such details. In 1894, a helmet with images of dragons was described by P. von Winkler in a book devoted to weapons of all countries and peoples: "A bump, probably of the XIV century, found in the Great Shed", made "of blued steel and covered with a gold notch representing dragons and streaks". In the drawing given in the book, the helmet is shown in one projection-from the front. Quite

* The authors are grateful to M. G. Kramarovsky and Yu. I. Elikhina for the opportunity to review these materials and use them for this publication.

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an ornate pommel with a plume, an ornamental patch strip, a hoop and a "box-shaped" visor are shown in full detail. On the dome, on both sides of the overlay strip, there are cartouches with dragons framed by clouds, flames and swirls (Winkler, 1894, p. 303, Fig. 327). Subsequently, this drawing was often reproduced by Russian and foreign authors in scientific and popular works devoted to the art of medieval Mongolia.

In 1908, a brief description of all three ceremonial helmets was published by a well-known expert on the history of weapons, E. E. Lenz, in the catalog of collections of weapons from the collection of the Imperial Hermitage, dating back to the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. The above-mentioned military headgear is described there as follows: "A Mongolian helmet riveted from two parts on iron plates. The blued crown is decorated with four cartouches depicting dragons; only a narrow visor remains on the riveted crown, while the ears and the back of the head are lost "(Lenz, 1908, p. 155). The summary table of "eastern helmets" shows a photo of this instance (front view).

Regarding another cylindrical-shaped military headpiece, E. E. Lenz noted that it was sent to St. Petersburg "in 1845 from Siberia by Varrand; the conical crown is decorated with a figure of a deity with a saber in his hands, entwined with snakes and surrounded by flames, which image refers to one of the Tibetan demons "dukshits", defenders of the faith, whose worship moved to Mongolia. The crown, forged from a single piece, is riveted on the edge of a straight crown, bent at a right angle." The scientist noted that to explain the figure of the deity, he used the advice of S. F. Oldenburg [Ibid., p. 154]. In the "eastern helmets" table, this battle head is shown only from the front.

The third helmet is described by the weapons historian even more succinctly: "An iron Mongol helmet, riveted in three parts, with thick slotted stripes at the seams; the entire crown is covered with wide streaks of printed silver in the Chinese taste. Helmet found in Siberia " [Ibid.]. In the table of "eastern helmets", this headland is also shown in one projection-from the front.

In the catalog of the weapons collection, E. E. Lenz mentions another, fourth " Mongolian helmet, riveted from two halves on a padded iron strip; on the front side, the seam is closed with copper slash strips with the image of dragons among thin vegetable streaks. The ears and the back of the head are suspended on chains, the visor is narrow" [Ibid., p. 155]. Unfortunately, for some reason, this instance is not listed in the summary table of "Eastern helmets". Judging by the description, it was different from all three exhibits described above.

Two ceremonial Mongolian helmets from the Hermitage collection were used by M. V. Gorelik to reconstruct the defensive weapons of the Mongols of the late Middle Ages. The researcher dated them to the XV-XVIII centuries. and he suggested that the Mongolian helmets served as the basis for the subsequent development of Manchu battle heads (Gorelik, 1979, tal. 99; fig. 5, a, b].

One of the three ceremonial helmets was analyzed by us, dated to the XVI-XVII centuries. and included in the consolidated classification of late Medieval battle heads: it is assigned to the fourth version of the first type. We also noted some points in the history of its study. In the summary table, this helmet is shown for the first time in profile, on the left side, but without cartouches with dragons (Bobrov and Khudyakov, 2003, pp. 141-142; Tables 1, 4).

To date, general information about Mongolian ceremonial helmets from the Hermitage collection has been introduced into scientific circulation. Only one of them is classified according to formal characteristics and is included in the classification of warheads of Central Asian nomads of the late Middle Ages. Meanwhile, each Mongolian ceremonial helmet deserves a description and comprehensive analysis.

Description of Mongolian ceremonial helmets

All the analyzed ceremonial helmets are richly ornamented highly artistic products, probably made to order. However, according to their design features, they can be classified in accordance with the previously developed methodology for typological classification of weapons.

The collection under consideration presents items related to different types and variants of combat headgear. All three helmets are made of iron. They differ very significantly in the nature of the bonding of composite parts and the features of decorative design. One refers to helmets with a riveted crown (the plates of its dome are connected to each other by means of overlays and rivets), the other two - with a solid-forged one. All three exhibits have an oval crown in cross-section. By the shape of the dome, they belong to different types, and by the presence of additional details, each can be separated into a separate version.

The helmet with a riveted crown (inv. N 3657) belongs to the spheroconic type (Fig. 1, 2). In oruzhievedches-

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Fig. 1. Ceremonial Mongolian spheroconic helmet.

3. Ceremonial Mongolian cylindrical-conical helmet.

Fig. 2. Drawing of the ceremonial Mongolian spheroconic helmet. 1 - view from the left side, 2-from the front, 3-from the right side.

Fig. 4. Drawing of the ceremonial Mongolian cylindrical-conical helmet. 1 - view from the left side, 2 - from the front, 3 - from the right side.

In some studies, this term refers to helmets with a spherical dome and a conical pommel. By the presence of this specimen of a peculiar "box-shaped" visor, a frontal plate and a hemispherical finial, it can be distinguished into a separate version of spheroconic helmets - with a "box-shaped" visor and a hemispherical finial. According to information from the catalog of E. E. Lenz, this specimen was brought from Siberia [1908, p. 154]. The helmet's dome is made up of three triangles-

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plates - sectors that converge to the top. On the connecting seams there are narrow overlays with five shaped extensions in the form of slotted circles and double-sided curls with a rhombic hole in the center. The dome is topped with a hemispherical finial with rivets. In front, a narrow head plate is riveted to the lower edge of the crown, to which a narrow pentagonal visor is attached, consisting of horizontal and bent-down stripes. The height of the helmet with a pommel is 18 cm, the pommel is 1.5 cm; the diameter of the crown on the lower edge is 22.5 cm; the length of the visor is 15 cm, the width is 3.5, the height is 0.7 cm.

The crown surface is decorated, according to E. E. Lenz, with "wide streaks of printed silver in the Chinese taste" [Ibid.]. There are three unclosed circles stamped on each sector. Inside the upper one is a diamond with curls bent in both directions and a heart under it; in the center of the lower ones - hearts framed by four curved figures. There are also hearts between the circles. At the edges of the sectors are concave shapes with pointed ends. Along the lower edge of the dome, a wide band of floral ornaments is minted. The surface of the visor is decorated with a minted pattern in the form of intertwining vine shoots. Along the lower edge of the dome on the left side there are six pairs of through rounded holes. Probably, with their help, a barmitsa was attached to the helmet.

Of the two helmets with a solid-forged dome, one (inv. N 1274) belongs to the cylindrical-conical type, to the variant with a "box-shaped" visor and a hemispherical pommel (Fig. 3, 4). This specimen was also brought from Siberia [Ibid.]. The helmet has an unusual dome design for Central Asia. The crown consists of two elements: a wide cylindrical lower part and a solid-forged conical upper part. In the place of their connection - a decorative rim of small bumps. Two more similar rims, separated by a series of rivets, are located on the upper part of the dome under the hemispherical finial. The latter is decorated with a gold-stamped pattern in the form of intertwining plant shoots, stylized leaves and curls. Probably, the prototype of such an ornament is the image of twisting shoots of a vine. At the top of the pommel is a multi-petal rosette with a hole in which the plume sleeve was reinforced. In front, on the upper conical part of the crown, the image of the Buddhist guardian of the faith - dokshita or, according to another interpretation, dharmapala-is minted in gold with a raised sword in his right hand, surrounded by writhing snakes, in a ring of fire with numerous flames. Riveted with rivets, the triangular "box" visor is decorated with patterns in the form of wriggling vine shoots. Along the entire lower edge of the crown is a row of rounded holes. In some of them, on the left side, rivets with spherical caps are preserved, resembling bolts in shape, which served to attach a plate bar mitt. The height of the helmet with a pommel is 19.5 cm, the pommel is 4 cm; the length of the visor is 11.5 cm, the width is 2.3 cm, the height is 1.3 cm.

The third helmet (inv. N 2748) is a type of combat helmet with a conical dome (Fig. 5-7). In relation to this exhibit in the works of weapons experts, there are most discrepancies and inaccuracies. In the first publication of the Hermitage collections, it is called the "Mongolian shishak misyurka", made of blued steel, and attributed to the Mongolian era [Imperial Hermitage..., 1891, p.363]. However, the "cheek guards and chain mail backplate" mentioned in the description are not present on this copy. It was described more precisely by P. von Winkler [1894, p. 303]. However, the proposed dating of the helmet to the Mongol period and the indication of the Great Sarai as its location cannot be accepted, since the shape and decorative design of this military headland do not allow us to date it earlier than the Late Middle Ages, when the first capital of the Golden Horde lay in ruins for a long time. In the work of E. E. Lenz, it is stated that the helmet is "riveted from two parts on iron plates" [1908, p. 155]. However, a detailed inspection of this exhibit showed that the crown of the helmet is solid forged. The blued dome is divided into sectors by decorative "overlays" that do not carry a functional load. The hoop has the same decorative character. The dome of the helmet is crowned by a hemispherical pommel with a scalloped edge. On the top of the head, a cylindrical sleeve is fixed, slightly expanding to the top, in which the plume was attached. A head plate is riveted to the lower edge of the crown. Its central part, to which the visor is attached, is wide, and the ends are narrow. The" box-shaped " visor is sub-triangular in shape. Along the lower edge of the crown there are rounded holes for fixing the bar mitt, in some of which rivets have been preserved. The height of the helmet with the pommel and sleeve is 28 cm, the sleeve is 6 cm; the diameter of the crown on the lower edge is 19 cm; the length of the forehead plate is 12.8 cm, the width is 3.5 cm; the length of the visor is 13 cm, the width is 1.2, the height is 1.5 cm.

The helmet is richly decorated. On the surface of the dome in each of the sectors are stamped gold kartu-shi, in the center of which is depicted a wriggling dragon with a horned head facing up, four legs with bird claws, a crest on its back and tail; the figure "sprouts" shoots and flowers. The frame consists of flames and swirls.

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5. Ceremonial Mongolian conical helmet.

Fig. 6. Drawing of the ceremonial Mongolian conical helmet. 1 - view from the left side, 2 - from the front, 3 - from the right side.

7. Reconstruction of wearing a ceremonial Mongolian conical helmet. Drawing by L. A. Bobrov.

In the lower part of the cartouches on both sides of the ring of fire, plant shoots with three leaves are shown. Vertical overhead stripes are decorated with a stylized image of a twisting vine between narrow spike-shaped stripes along the edges. The hemispherical pommel is decorated with a continuous openwork, slotted pattern in the form of intertwining plant shoots and curls. On the sleeve there are three horizontal belts of plant ornaments. In the wide part of the head plate, opposing dragons are depicted. They are shown with their heads raised, their mouths wide open, their necks arched, their bodies arched, and their tails raised. Images of dragons cover the entire surface of the decorative hoop. On the visor is a pattern in the form of stylized shoots of a twisting vine with leaves and curls.

Initially, this specimen was assigned to one of the variants of spheroconic helmets with a two-plate dome [Bobrov and Khudyakov, 2003, p. 141], since this is how it was characterized in the work of the most authoritative specialist in the Field of Mechanical Engineering.-

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specialist on the history of weapons of the early XX century E. E. Lenz [1908, p. 155]. However, a detailed study of the design of the helmet gives grounds for attributing it to a different department - solid-forged combat heads, to the type - with a conical dome and to the variant-with a "box-shaped" visor, a frontal plate, a hemispherical pommel and a sleeve.

Questions about the purpose, dating, and cultural identity of helmets

All the helmets in question could undoubtedly be used to protect a warrior's head in combat conditions. They are made of blued iron by highly professional gunsmiths. In terms of their design features, these helmets are very similar to similar, but simpler and not so richly decorated battle heads of Mongolian warriors of the late Middle Ages and Modern times. Barmits were attached to the lower edge of the crown of all three analyzed specimens. However, the presence of highly artistic images of mythological characters and ornaments made in gold and silver coinage suggests that the symbolic or symbolic function was equally important for these battle heads. With their elegant, "ceremonial" appearance, they were supposed to emphasize the high social status of their owner - an outstanding noble warrior, commander or representative of the ruling family in the army of a nomadic state. According to the degree of pretentiousness of their design and the presence of symbolically significant elements, these helmets are not the same.

The spheroconic helmet is richly ornamented with silver coinage. However, in the set of his ornamental subjects, there are no images that can be considered symbolically significant in medieval Central or East Asian heraldry. Probably, it can be attributed to the combat head of a noble warrior, hero, or military leader.

The cylindrical-conical helmet is decorated with gold coinage with the image of a Buddhist guardian of the faith. This image not only emphasizes the owner's belonging to the Lamaist branch of Buddhism, but also serves as a kind of amulet for him, instilling confidence in his invulnerability under the protection of the guardians of the righteous faith. For the warriors of the tribesmen, such a helmet-bearer, quite possibly, had a sacred meaning. Most likely, this helmet belonged to one of the Mongol princes or generals during the establishment and spread of Lamaism in Mongolia. The cylindrical-conical shape of the crown brings it closer to the Qing headlands of the XVII-XVIII centuries. It is quite likely that this helmet could have been made after Mongolia became part of the Qing Empire.

The most elegant is the battle headland, decorated with gold chasing with dragon figures. This image in the East Asian cultural tradition was a symbol of imperial power. The presence of images of dragons on the helmet may indicate that its owner belongs to the number of representatives of the ruling Khan family in one of the late medieval Mongol states. The image of dragons inside a ring of fire suggests the use of Lamaist cult paraphernalia in this ornamental motif.

All three helmets can be attributed to the Mongolian complex of protective weapons of the late Middle Ages and early Modern times. The earlier assumptions about the possibility of dating a conical helmet with images of dragons of the XIII-XIV centuries and its discovery in the Great Sarai are not supported by any evidence [Imperial Hermitage..., 1891, p.363; Winkler, 1894, p. 303]. It was said above why it could not be found on the ruins of the capital of the Golden Horde. Due to the presence of such structural details as a head plate and a "box-shaped" visor, this specimen can certainly be attributed to a large series of Mongolian late Medieval helmets (Bobrov and Khudyakov, 2003, p.141). Some elements of the design, including the slotted hemispherical pommel, bring it closer to the Manchurian battle heads of the XVII century. A similar Manchurian helmet was presented as a diplomatic gift to the Russian Tsar Mikhail Fyodorovich in 1637. Tsagan Taija presented Tsar Alexey Mikhailovich with another "shel decorated with gold leaf" together with an expensive black velvet kuyak with bracers in 1667 [Ibid., pp. 141-142]. However, the whole-shod crown is not typical for Central Asian helmets earlier than the XVII century. Most likely, due to the combination of structural and decorative elements, this copy should date from the XVII-XVIII centuries. The cylindrical-conical helmet with the image of the Buddhist guardian of the faith in a ring of fire can also be attributed to this time, since the adoption of Lamaism as a state religion and the widespread spread of Lamaism in Mongolia are associated with the reign of the famous zealot of this faith, Avttsai Khan, who ordered the destruction or damage of many medieval monuments in Mongolia in the XVII century. dated to the 15th-17th centuries. Helmets of this design were widespread in the nomadic world of the Eurasian steppes during the early and developed Middle Ages-

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non-centuries. However, the combination of a spherical dome with a frontal plate and a "box-shaped" visor is an important argument in favor of assigning this specimen to the late Middle Ages.

Conclusion

Studying the collection of ceremonial helmets from the State Hermitage Museum collection allowed us to clarify their design features and important details of decorative design. As a result, it became possible to fully use these battle heads as an informative material source for studying the military affairs of the Mongols and the military hierarchy in the armies of the Mongol states in the late Middle Ages and Modern times. The conducted analysis showed the possibility of attribution and introduction into scientific circulation of such finds, the exact location and circumstances of discovery of which are not indicated in the inventory of objects on display or stored in storerooms in many museums in Russia and neighboring countries.

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The article was submitted to the Editorial Board on 24.10.05.

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