Introduction

The cultural evolution of a person is a multi-linear and uneven process, in which there are periods of rapid changes of different nature. They are commonly referred to as turning points. This term describes phenomena more than it explains them. The accumulated data on the ancient history of the population of Primorye allow us to distinguish several periods when there was a rapid change in life support systems, cultural traditions, and the population, which we can describe as"turning points". These changes were particularly pronounced in coastal areas, where groups of marine hunter-gatherers and fishermen clashed with farmers. One of these areas is Peter the Great Bay and the continental territories surrounding it. So why do situations arise when a person's cultural evolution changes its trajectory and pace? We will try to explain some of these phenomena in the ecological paradigm.

Ecological and cultural changes in Primorye in the Middle Holocene

Considering the cultural evolution of the population on the territory of Primorye during the middle and early late Holocene, we can distinguish four major time intervals, regarded as turning points, when events related to changing cultural traditions and the complex interaction of ancient cultures based on marine and agricultural adaptations took place. It should be emphasized that the process of interaction of various adaptations can be traced on archaeological material precisely during periods of significant, if not catastrophic, natural changes. When moving on to reconstruction, there are two things to consider. First, ecological changes in the first and third intervals were not so significant, although they also affected the trajectory of cultural evolution of the ancient population of Primorye. Secondly, the accumulation of archaeological data is uneven both in quantitative and qualitative terms, so we have uneven information on the time intervals studied. All this is reflected in the reconstruction of events proposed in this study, which not only gives their interpretation, but also outlines the ways of further search.

The first interval falls on the period of 5400 - 5,200 BP, the second - 4700 - 4300 BP, the third-3600-3300 BP, the fourth - 2500 - 2200 BP. Moreover, the second and fourth intervals were the most catastrophic for the ancient population in many parts of the world (Vostretsov, 2005).

Environmental changes in the coastal and continental zones

According to the paleogeographic reconstructions of A. M. Korotkiy [1994; First Fishermen..., 1998,

The author expresses his sincere gratitude to his colleagues A. M. Korotky, V. A. Rakov, L. N. Besednov, A.V. Epifanova, and S. A. Sergusheva for fruitful cooperation.

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Figure 1. Climate, vegetation, and sea level changes in the Holocene of Primorye (according to [First Fishermen..., 1998, ch. 1]). a - sea level; b - average August temperature; c-average annual temperature; d - average January temperature; e - average precipitation. 1-4-pine-oak forests with inclusions of birch and alder at the level of 2, 4 thousand ta. n.; 5-oak-broad-leaved forests with abundant birch; 6-coniferous-broad-leaved, oak-birch and birch-alder forests; 7-polydominant broad-leaved forests; 8-birch-elm forests with elements of cold-loving vegetation; 9-birch-broadleaf forests; 10-birch-elm forests in association with alder and shrubby birch; 11 - birch-elm and birch-alder forests with elements of forest tundra.

Chapter 1], we can note the following ecological changes that occurred in the second and fourth intervals as the most studied (Fig. 1). In the coastal zone, after the warm Atlantic phase, during the transition to the subboreal, 4700 - 4300 BP, the climate cooled and the sea level dropped by 6 - 7 m, i.e., after the warm Atlantic phase. up to 3 - 4 m below the current level. The regression caused strong landscape changes in the coastal zone. Numerous lagoons and small bays have disappeared, and the coastline has significantly leveled off. In the interval 2500-2200 BC, there was also a short but sharp and significant cooling of the climate and the sea level fell to 1.5 m below the current level, which led to the disappearance of lagoons, the formation of sea terraces, and the drying up of swamps

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and the formation of alluvial plains in river valleys. In the territories adjacent to this zone, during the time intervals under consideration, continental climatic features increased: winters became colder, summers drier and colder. The amount of precipitation decreased. Droughts in the first half of the summer were getting worse. There was a decline in agroclimatic resources.

Thus, first, environmental changes during the second interval were similar to those that occurred in the fourth. In the second interval, they were strong or catastrophic, but proceeded slowly, in the fourth-not so significant, but occurred very quickly, leaving the population less time to search and choose adaptive solutions. Secondly, during both intervals, landscape changes destroyed the usual resource base of marine hunters and fishermen. The coastal zone became more attractive to farmers, as the increased humidity on the coast smoothed out the harmful effects of droughts on plant cultivation. At the same time, natural changes that were unfavorable for humans in the coastal zone occurred earlier and were more noticeable than in the adjacent territories. In both cases, conditions were formed that led to the displacement of an excessive part of farmers from continental to coastal areas.

The first and third time intervals are characterized by similar trends of environmental changes described above, the differences are in the intensity of these changes and the difference in the initial situations.

Changes in cultural traditions and life support systems of the Primorye population

Early monuments of the Boisman culture belong to about 6000 - 5000 AD, the period of the peak of the Atlantic transgression, preceding the first interval, as a local chronological variant of the tradition of comb ceramics on the sea coast of Otto. Olga River in the east of Primorye to the north of the Korean Peninsula [First Fishermen..., 1998, ch. 8]. At the third stage of its development, which occurs at the maximum of favorable warming conditions and precedes the cooling of the first interval, there was an intensification of cultural contacts of the Boysmans, who reached the middle and lower Amur [Moreva, 2005]. This stage also includes the earliest known example of marine adaptation focused on the use of lagoon and marine resources - Boysman-1 (Fig. 2) [First Fishermen..., 1998, ch.9; Vostretsov, 2001].

At about the same time, the continental regions of Eastern Manchuria were home to early agricultural cultures similar to the Zaisanov culture (Vostretsov et al., 2003).

Event 1. At the end of the Atlantic period in the Holocene, in the interval 5400 - 5200 BP, there was a slight cooling of the climate and a drop in sea level (see Figure 1). These events coincide with the end of the third stage of the evolution of the Boisman pottery tradition, when the spread of this culture was minimized (Moreva, 2005). The same ecological changes probably initiated the advance of early farmers to the western continental regions of Primorye. This process, which began in Northern China around the beginning of the Holocene climate optimum (7500 BP), was long-lasting (Alkin, 2000). In Primorye, its final stage is observed - the emergence and spread of population groups with a new cultural tradition, which we called the tradition of rope ceramics within the Zaisanov culture (Vostretsov, 2005). Migrants brought with them new technologies of stone processing and a ceramic tradition, the nature of their settlement was different, they also formed a new life support system that included agriculture, i.e. a new adaptation [Ibid.]. At the settlement of Krounovka-1, early farmers with a tradition of rope ceramics lived for a long time, more than 500 years (four stages of settlement can be traced in the stratigraphy of the monument). They cultivated common millet (Panicum miliaceum) and perilla (Perilla sp.) (defined by E. A. Sergusheva). In addition, they were engaged in hunting, fishing and collecting small river snails, Manchurian nuts and acorns (the latter served as a resource for carbohydrates in the event of a bad millet crop). But the place for the settlement was chosen based on the needs of agriculture. According to the soil scientist G. I. Ivanov (Andreeva et al., 1984), the lands in the middle reaches of rivers flowing into the Razdolnaya River are the most fertile in Primorye and neighboring regions of Manchuria.

The co-existence of two population groups with agricultural and fishing-hunting-gathering adaptations, each living in its own zone, continued until the end of the warm Atlantic period of the Holocene.

Event 2. After 5000 BP, at the turn of the Atlantic and Subboreal periods of the Holocene, a significant cooling of the climate began (see Figure 1). The peak of ecological changes occurs in the interval 4700-4300 BP. They led to a widespread shortage of available resources among the Boisman population, which required the adaptation of the life support system and all social behavior to the new conditions. This task turned out to be beyond the power of the Boysmans, probably,

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2. Annual cycle of life support for the Boisman settlement-1 ca. 5,500 BP (according to: [First Fishermen..., 1998, ch. 9]).

because of the transience and significance of natural changes. One way or another, we observe the extinction of the Boisman cultural tradition after the end of the Atlantic phase of the Holocene, ca. 5000 BC.

With the cooling of the climate at the beginning of the transition period from the Atlantic to the subboreal, the population of the continental regions of Primorye, including the valley of the Krounovka River (Krounovka-1), begins to settle in different directions. On the coast hall. Early farmers with a tradition of rope ceramics left the monuments of Peter the Great Rybak-1 (Garkovik, 2003), Boysman-2 (Moreva et al., 2002), Zaisanovka-7, Posyet-1; on the southern shore of Lake Baikal. Khanka-Luzanova sopka-2 (Popov et al., 2003); Ustinovka - 8 on the eastern coast of Primorye (Krupyanko and Tabarev, 2004).

In the interval 4700-4500 BP, when ecological changes reached their peak, on the sandbar that separated the paleolaguna at the mouth of the Gladkaya River from the Bukh. During the expedition, the settlement of Zaisanovka-7 already existed. Its inhabitants have formed a new life support system based on the exploitation of marine resources (Figure 3). They fished throughout the year (26 species-defined by A.V. Epifanova and L. N. Besednov), collected shellfish, hunted land and marine mammals, as well as migratory birds. The carbohydrate component of the diet was provided by collecting acorns, Manchurian nuts and hazelnuts, which were stored until the next harvest in large pits. In addition, the villagers gathered grapes, bird cherry, and velvet. Numerous indirect evidences of agriculture were found on the monument: hand plows( kare), hoes, reaping knives, and trowels, similar to those known from the materials of agricultural settlements of that time in Manchuria and Korea (Choe Chong Pil, 1990; Vostretsovidr., 2002).

Thus, the choice of the site for the settlement and the reconstructed annual economic cycle indicate that the inhabitants of the Neolithic village of Zaisanovka-7 created a life-support system on the coast about 4,500 years ago, the main stabilizing components of which were coastal marine fishing, acorn gathering, and partially hunting.

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3. Annual cycle of life support for the Zaisanovka-7 settlement approx. 4500 l. n.

Subsequently, farmers, carriers of the Zaisanov cultural tradition in its various variants, settled throughout Primorye (Vostretsov, 2005). Looking at regional data, we can see that the Atlantic-Subboreal boundary correlates, according to the most common chronological scale in Japan, with the transition from early to late Jomon (Aikens and Higuchi, 1982; Rowley-Conwy, 1984). In the Korean Peninsula adjacent to Primorye, the transition from the Early Neolithic to the Late Neolithic in the northern part of the peninsula is recorded at this turn (Kim Yonggang and Son Ryang-gu, 1991; So Kuk-te, 1986) and to the Middle Neolithic in the southern part (Im Hyo-jae, 1988). At the same time, there are significant changes in life support systems (Choi Jonpil, 2001). In some areas of Northern China, there is also evidence of dramatic social changes that occurred after 4,600 BC (Ren Shinan, 2001). In the period from 5000 to at least 4300 BP, rice cultivation from mainland China spread to the southeastern coast (Tialong Lao, 2004).

How significant natural changes were at the Atlantic-Subboreal boundary can be judged by the adaptive responses of populations in other parts of the world. For example, on the southern and northern coasts of Peru, the transition to early agriculture is associated with this time (Bashilov, 1999).

Event 3. In the subboreal period, the beginning of which is characterized by a warming climate, in the continental regions of Primorye, agricultural adaptation continued to exist among later carriers of the Zaisanov culture, who left the Prikhankai group of monuments: the settlements of Novoselishche-4 (the lower layer), Krounovka-1 (the excavations of A. P. Okladnikov), Rettikhovka-geologicheskaya, Mustang-1, Bogolyubovka-1, Anuchino-14. The deterioration of agroclimatic conditions as a result of a cooling climate in the range of 3600-3300 BP caused the migration of a part of the population of continental regions to the coast of Southern and Southeastern Primorye, as evidenced by the eastern group of Prikhankai monuments, such as Evstafiy-4, Bolshaya Sopka (Yanshina, 2001, 2003; Vostretsov, 2005). In addition, the appearance of the Margarita archaeological culture on the coast of Eastern Primorye belongs to this period. All known dates of Margarita monuments (Glazkovka-2, Evstafiy-Oleg-1,

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Preobrazhenie-1, Zarya-3, Monastyrka-3) correspond to this interval (Yanshina and Klyuev, 2005). Following its discoverers (Garkovik, 1967; Andreeva, 1970), we associate the transition to the Bronze Age with this culture. It is quite likely that during the Paleometallic epoch, agricultural groups of the population remained in secluded places, leaving Prikhankai monuments dating from the end of this interval and subsequent time.

In continental and coastal Peru, the spread of maize and a new cultural tradition are associated with an interval of 3400-3200 years AGO (Massa, 1970) or somewhat later (about 3000 years ago).

Thus, the three considered intervals are associated with the emergence of various population groups and the first stage of agricultural development in Primorye (Vostretsov, 2005), which lasted until approximately the beginning of the Early Iron Age, i.e. up to 2,500 BC.

Event 4.The second stage of the spread of agriculture in Primorye is associated with the interval of 2500 - 2200 AD. Since about the fifth century BC, the Crown (Tuangjie) archaeological culture (Voji chronicle tribes) has existed in the continental regions of Primorye, in the area of the modern border of the DPRK and China. The Crown population consisted of rural communities with no noticeable social stratification. They cultivated millet, barley, and wheat [Yanushevich et al., 1990; Vostretsov, 1987; Vostretsov, 1999; Vostretsov, 2005] using a bed-based farming system, traces of which were found at the settlement of Krounovka-1 in 2003.

Starting from the 8th century BC, the coastal zone of Southern Primorye, including the territory of the present-day North Hamgyong Province (North Korea), was inhabited by the Yankovsky archaeological culture. Their life support system was based on extensive exploitation of marine resources. At the same time, at a small distance from the coast or in those areas where the influence of the sea was not so pronounced, the cultivation of millet and barley played a certain role. The number and density of the Yankovsky population peaked in the coastal zone (Andreeva et al., 1986). Compared to the Kronovsky population, this population had a more complex social organization (different sizes and structures of dwellings).

In the late fourth and early third centuries BC, a sharp cooling of the climate and a drop in sea level undermined the economy of the Yankov culture carriers. Since that time, a gradual settlement of the surplus part of the Croonian farmers began in the coastal areas of the Southern and South-Eastern Primorye. They assimilated part of the Yankovsky population. The migration of carriers of the Crown culture is associated with a change in their life support and settlement systems, a decline in material culture, and a decrease in population density on developed lands. This was the price they paid for adapting to the new conditions (Vostretsov, 1999). By about the turn of the millennium, the Kronovites had settled the entire coastal zone, with the exception of the coast on the territory of the present-day Khasansky district, where marine resources were more stable and diverse and the Yankov population continued to exist.

There is a certain coincidence of natural changes, initial situations, and the time of expansion of farmers in the north (the Crown culture) and in the south (the Yayoi culture) of the Sea of Japan basin (Akazawa, 1982; Vostretsov, 1999), which resulted in the spread of "advanced" farming systems that successfully competed with highly developed marine economies. It was from this time that agriculture began to dominate the economy of the region, which later formed the basis of economic and social changes that created the basis for the formation of early states.

Discussion and conclusions

Having considered four time intervals with which we associate "turning points" in the cultural evolution of the population of Primorye and neighboring areas of the Sea of Japan basin, we see certain similarities in environmental situations caused by climate cooling and falling sea levels, on the one hand, and in the socio - cultural events caused by them, on the other. These effects are most clearly observed in the second and fourth intervals and can be traced in many regions of the world, which is associated with more significant environmental changes of a planetary nature (Vostretsov, 2005). All the "turning points" coincide with the emergence of new cultural traditions and adaptations, and the first, second and fourth - also with the expansion of farmers.

There are two stages in the spread of agriculture in Primorye. The beginning of each of them was associated with a change in the ecological situation (about 5300 and 2300 years ago). The cooling of the climate and the fall in sea level led to the degradation of marine life support systems and depopulation of coastal areas, which created conditions for the penetration of new population groups, other cultural traditions and life support systems on the coast. These groups, adapted to agriculture, inevitably interacted with those who were engaged in marine fishing in the coastal areas. The question arises: why did agricultural adaptations eventually win out and begin to dominate the region

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from the second stage? We will try to offer an explanatory model of the interaction of marine and agricultural adaptations at the Atlantic-Subboreal and Subboreal-subatlantic boundaries of the Holocene, when there was a change in cultural traditions.

We have already shown that the cause of cultural changes in the second and fourth "turning points" was migration processes [Vostretsov, 2004]. It is necessary to understand why there were migrations, and not cultural transformations. In our opinion, it is most promising to look for explanations in the area of comparing the density of the continental population with agricultural adaptation and the coastal population with marine adaptation, as well as the complexity of their social organization. We know that for some time these groups co-existed within their ranges.

As is known from ethnographic data, the density and population size of coastal areas is higher than that of their related continental inhabitants (Yesner, 1980). The concentration of archaeological sites on the coast of Primorye is several times higher than that in the interior. In addition, coastal inhabitants with marine adaptations are often characterized by a more complex social structure and militancy, which is associated with high population density and competition for resources [Ibid].

Thus, in a stable situation, continental groups of farmers could hardly replace, by simple territorial occupation, the coastal population with marine adaptation, which clearly outnumbered them in number and complexity of social organization. For survival, it was much more profitable not to enter into direct competitive relations and to co-exist in separate territories, which is what we are seeing at the end of the Atlantic period. The situation was different when the resource base narrowed as a result of cold weather and sea level regression. Environmental pressure was experienced by both continental and coastal residents, which forced them to look for some adaptive solutions related to the search for missing or alternative resources. But even then, the continental population was hardly able to occupy the coastal territories with their inhabitants. The occupation could only take place if these areas were somewhat depopulated.

The most universal ecological cause of depopulation is the destruction of the usual resource base. The main factor in its destruction in the coastal zone was the drop in sea level as a result of the cold snap. It is known that these ecological events in the transition period from the Atlantic to the Subboreal (4900 - 4300 BP) and at the beginning of the sub - Atlantic (2200-2100 BP) Holocene preceded cultural changes in the south of Primorye. Archaeological evidence (settlement of the same places, difference in dates, stratigraphy) confirms that continental groups moved to coastal areas when they were already mostly depopulated.

Thus, according to the available data, it is possible to determine some universal characteristics of the model of agricultural penetration into coastal zones:

- agriculture spreads to new territories after and as a result of any environmental stresses that destroy resource bases and life support systems and lead to depopulation;

- its advance to the liberated territories occurs quickly and has a wave-like pulsating character [First Fishermen..., 1998, ch. 8];

- the emergence of agriculture is associated with the arrival of a new population with a different, more stable cultural tradition of life support.

All these features are observed both in Primorye and in Japan in the second and fourth intervals.

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The article was submitted to the Editorial Board on 07.02.06.

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